[BRARY 


THE  UNIVERSITY 


OF  CAL  IFORNIA 


LOS  ANGELES 


is  DUE  on  the  last 
imped  b  '" 


A  HISTORY  OF 
EDUCATION 


BY 


THOMAS   DAVIDSON 

AUTHOR  or  "ARISTOTLE  AND  THE  ANCIENT  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS," 

ROUSSEAU  AND  EDUCATION  ACCORDING  TO  NATURE,"   ETC. 


NEW   YORK 
CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

1901 


COPYRIGHT,  1900,  BY 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


TROW  DIRECTORY 

MINTING  AND  IOOKIINDINO  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK 


PREFACE 

To  be  strictly  accurate,  the  title  of  this  book  should 
have  been  "  A  Brief  History  of  Education,  as  Conscious 
Evolution."  To  record,  even  summarily,  the  facts  and 
events  in  the  long  history  of  education,  within  the  nar- 
row limits  of  a  text-book,  would  have  been  both  impossi- 
ble and  undesirable.  My  endeavor  has  been  to  present 
education  as  the  last  and  highest  form  of  evolution — that 
great  process  which  includes  both  Nature  and  Culture. 
I  have  tried  to  show  what  it  is  that  evolves,  why  it 
evolves,  and  why  evolution,  finally  attaining  to  conscious- 
ness, becomes  education.  Seeing  that  the  immanent  pur- 
pose of  evolution  is  the  realization  of  free  individuals, 
that  is,  moral  personalities,  I  have  endeavored  to  mark 
the  steps  by  which  this  has  been  gradually  attained,  and 
to  indicate  those  that  have  yet  to  be  taken. 

By  placing  education  in  relation  to  the  whole  process 
of  evolution,  as  its  highest  form,  I  have  hoped  to  impart 
to  it  a  dignity  which  it  could  hardly  otherwise  receive  or 
claim.  From  many  points  of  view,  the  educator's  pro- 
fession seems  mean  and  profitless  enough,  compared  with 
those  that  make  more  noise  in  the  world;  but  when  it  is 
recognized  to  be  the  highest  phase  of  the  world-process, 
and  the  teacher  to  be  the  chief  agent  in  that  process, 
both  it  and  he  assume  a  very  different  aspect.  Then 


v 

teaching  is  seen  to  be  the  noblest  of  professions,  and 
that  which  ought  to  call  for  the  highest  devotion  and 
enthusiasm. 

In  the  present  work  I  have  given  special  attention  to 
those  portions  of  educational  history  that  are  usually 
ignored  or  neglected,  at  the  expense  of  those  that  are 
more  generally  known.  This  accounts  for  the  chapter 
on  Muslim  Education  and  several  others.  And  I  have 
laid  somewhat  less  stress  on  those  portions  of  the  history 
treated  in  the  "  Great  Educators/'  issued  by  the  same 
publishers. 

Eeference  to  the  Bibliography  will  show  that  I  have 
made  very  little  use  of  previous  histories  of  education. 
The  reason  of  this  is,  not  that  I  failed  to  appreciate  them, 
but  that  my  aim  was  different  from  theirs. 

Some  of  my  generalizations  are,  I  know,  open  to  ques- 
tion. In  defence,  I  have  only  to  say  that  in  all  cases  I 
have  given  what  seemed  to  me  best  calculated  to  impart 
a  comprehensive  view  of  the  entire  subject. 

The  quotations  at  the  head  of  most  of  the  chapters  are 
intended  as  texts  for  lectures  or  discussions. 

THOMAS  DAVIDSON. 

NEW  YOEK,  April  20,  1900. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

BOOK  I 
SAVAGE,  BARBARIAN,  AND  CIVIC  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  INTRODUCTORY 1 

II.  THE  RISE  OP  INTELLIGENCE         .        .        .        .        .13 

III.  SAVAGE  EDUCATION 18    *•    ' 

IV.  BARBARIAN  EDUCATION 24 

(A)  Ancient  Turanian  Education  .        .         .         .30 

(1)  Sumir  and  Akkad  (Chaldsea)  .        .        .32 

(2)  Egypt 37 

(3)  China 41 

(B)  Ancient  Semitic  Education       .        .        .        .45 

Babylonia  and  Assyria          .        .        .        .47 

(C)  Ancient  Aryan  Education         .        .  .     55 

(1)  India 58 

(2)  Iran  (Medo-Persia) 66 

V.     Civic  EDUCATION 75 

(1)  Judaea        . 77 

(2)  Greece 86 

(3)  Rome         . 105 


Vlll  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

BOOK    II 
HUMAN  EDUCATION 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY  115 

DIVISION  I.— SUPERNATURAL  BEGINNINGS   OF 
HUMANISM 

CHAPTBB 

I.     HELLENISTIC  EDUCATION 117 

IL     THE    CHRISTIAN   "CATECHETICAL    SCHOOL"  OF  ALEX- 
ANDRIA        121 

III.  PATRISTIC  EDUCATION 127 

IV.  MUSLIM  EDUCATION         .        . ' 133 

(I.)  Propaedeutic  and  Logic  .....  139 

(II.)  The  Natural  Sciences 141 

(III.)  The  Rational   World- Soul       .         .         .         .145 

DIVISION  IL— MEDUEVAL   EDUCATION 

I.     PERIOD  OF  CHARLES  THE  GREAT 161 

II.     SCHOLASTICISM  AND  MYSTICISM 159 

III.  THE  MEDIAEVAL  UNIVERSITIES 166 

IV.  KENAISSANCE,  REFORMATION,   AND   COUNTER-REFORMA- 

TION   176 

DIVISION  HI.— MODERN  EDUCATION 

I.     THE  FIFTEENTH,  SIXTEENTH,  AND  SEVENTEENTH  CENT- 
URIES           190 

II.     THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY .  209 

III.  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 220 

IV.  THE  OUTLOOK 254 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 277 

INDEX    .  .        .  .  •  283 


BOOK  I. 

SAVAGE,   BARBARIAN,   AND 
CIVIC  EDUCATION 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY 

Desire  then  in  the  beginning  arose,  the  first  germ  of  mind.  The 
bond  betwixt  Non-Being  and  Being,  as  knowledge,  wise  men  find 
hid  in  their  hearts. — VEDA. 

Feeling  is  a  primitive  datum.  The  question,  therefore,  is  not  how 
feeling  arises,  but  how  it  is  modified  and  how  it  gives  birth  to  sen- 
sation.— ROSMINI,  New  Essay,  §  717. 

The  Ego  which  reflects  upon  itself,  finds  that,  at  bottom,  it  is  a 
feeling  that  constitutes  the  sentient  and  intelligent  subject. — Ibid., 
§719. 

Tha  sentient  subject  .  .'  .  is  not  deduced  from  a  long  train 
of  reasoning,  but  from  a  simple  analysis  of  the  idea  of  existing  sen- 
sation. .  .  .  To  conceive  an  existing  sensation  is  to  conceive  a 
substance. — Ibid.,  §  643. 

While  philosophers  are  wrangling  over  the  government  of  the 
world,  Hunger  and  Love  are  doing  their  work. — SCHILLER. 

It  is  not  in  knowledge,  as  such,  but  in  feeling  and  action  that 
reality  is  given. — A.  SETH,  Man's  Place  in  the  Cosmos,  p.  122. 

Intellectus  rerum  veraciter  ipsae  res  sunt. — SCOTUS  ERIUGENA. 

HISTORY,  as  at  present  understood,  is  a  record  of  evo- 
lution, which,  according  to  Mr.  Spencer,  is  a  "change 
from  an  indefinite,  incoherent  homogeneity  to  a  definite, 
coherent  heterogeneity,  through  continuous  differentia- 
tions and  integrations."  EDUCATION  is  conscious  or 
voluntary  evolution.  Hence,  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 
is  a  record  of  such  evolution,  and  begins  at  the  point 

1 


2  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

where  man  takes  himself  into  his  own  hand,  so  to  speak, 
and  seeks  to  guideoHis  life  taward  an  ever  more  definite, 
coherent  heterogeneity,  which  is  what  we  mean  by  his 
ideal  end. 

Of  the  beginning  of  evolution  we  have  no  experi- 
ential knowledge,  and,  indeed,  cannot  even  imagine  it 
as  beginning.  A  popular  evolutionist  tells  us:  "The 
earliest  condition  in  which  Science  allows  us  to  picture 
this  globe  is  that  of  a  fiery  mass  of  nebulous  matter. 
At  the  second  stage  it  consists  of  countless  myriads  of 
similar  atoms,  roughly  outlined  into  a  ragged  cloud- 
ball,  glowing  with  heat,  and  rotating  in  space  with  in- 
conceivable velocity.  By  what  means  can  this  mass  be 
broken  up,  or  broken  down,  and  made  into  a  solid 
world?  By  two  things — mutual  attraction  and  chemical 
affinity.  The  moment  when  within  the  cloud-ball  the 
conditions  of  cooling  temperature  are  such  that  two 
atoms  could  combine  together,  the  cause  of  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  earth  was  won.  .  .  .  With  every  addi- 
tional atom  added,  the  power,  as  well  as  the  complexity 
of  the  combination  increases.  As  the  process  goes  on, 
after  endless  vicissitudes,  repulsions,  and  readjustments, 
the  changes  become  fewer  and  fewer,  the  conflict  be- 
tween mass  and  mass  dies  down;  the  elements,  passing 
through  various  stages  of  liquidity,  finally  combine  in 
the  order  of  their  affinities,  arrange  themselves  in  the 
order  of  their  densities,  and  the  solid  earth  is  formed. 

"  Now,  recall  the  names  of  the  leading  actors  in  this 
stupendous  reformation.  They  are  two  in  number, 
mutual  attraction  and  chemical  affinity.  Notice  these 
words,  attraction  and  affinity.  Notice  that  the  great 
formative  forces  of  physical  evolution  have  psychical 


INTRODUCTORY 

names.  It  is  idle  to  discuss  whether  there  is,  or  can 
be,  any  identity  between  the  thing  represented  in  the 
one  case  and  in  the  other.  Obviously  there  cannot  be. 
Yet  this  does  not  exhaust  the  interest  of  the  analogy. 
In  reality,  neither  here  nor  anywhere,  have  we  any 
knowledge  whatever  of  what  is  actually  meant  by  at- 
traction; nor  in  the  one  sphere  or  the  other  have  we 
even  the  means  of  approximating  to  such  knowledge. 
.  .  .  Here,  as  in  every  deep  recess  of  physical  Nat- 
ure, we  are  in  the  presence  of  that  which  is  metaphysical, 
that  which  bars  the  way  imperiously  at  every  turn  to  a 
materialistic  interpretation  of  the  world.  Yet  .  .  . 
what  likeness,  even  the  most  remote,  could  we  have  ex- 
pected to  trace  between  the  gradual  aggregation  of  units 
of  matter  in  the  condensation  of  a  weltering  star  and 
the  slow  segregation  of  man  in  the  organization  of  so- 
cieties and  nations?  However  different  the  agents,  is 
there  no  suggestion  that  they  are  different  stages  of  a 
uniform  process,  different  epochs  of  one  great  historic 
enterprise,  different  results  of  a  single  evolutionary 
law?"* 

To  the  last  question  we  may  unhesitatingly  answer, 
Yes.  We  may  even  go  further,  and  assert  that,  unless 
we  are  to  be  condemned  to  the  author's  hopeless  agnos- 
ticism, and  the  evolution  of  the  world  is  forever  to  re- 
main a  mystery  to  us,  it  must  be  interpreted  in  terms  of 
experience,  that  is,  at  bottom,  of  feeling,  including  de- 
sire. Nor  ought  this  to  surprise  us;  for,  since  the  world 
of  experience — and  we  can  talk  intelligently  of  no  other 
— consists  of  nothing  but  feelings  grouped  and  classi- 

*  Henry  Drummond,  The  Ascent  of  Man,  p.  337  sqq.  Cf.  Tennyson, 
In  Afemoriam,  cxviii.  and  Epilogue,  near  end ;  also  Vedic  Hymn,  in 
Max  Milller's  History  of  Sanskrit  Literature,  p.  564. 


4  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

fied,  there  is  every  reason  for  interpreting  it  in  terms 
of  feeling.  Such  interpretation  is  mere  analysis,  as  it 
ought  to  be,  involving  the  assumption  of  nothing  out- 
side of  experience.  If  we  assume  feeling,  including 
desire,  as  the  stuff  of  the  world,  we  have  no  difficulty 
in  explaining  evolution  upon  known  principles.  There 
can,  in  the  last  analysis,  be  no  intelligible  active  prin- 
ciple but  desire;  and,  since  all  desire  is  a  tendency  to 
greater  depth  or  variety  of  feeling,  it  is,  of  necessity, 
an  evolutionary  energy.  Further,  all  desire  implies  the 
existence  of  something  desired,  but  not  possessed,  or  of 
environment,  and  so  we  are  forced  to  conceive  of  feeling 
as  atomic,  or  individual,  in  its  nature.  The  world  is 
made  up  of  a  multitude  of  what  we  may  call  "  substan- 
tial feelings,"  each  having  all  the  rest  for  its  environ- 
ment,* and  each,  through  desire,  modifying,  and  being 
modified  by,  all  the  rest.  The  sum  of  the  modifications 
of  each  substantial  feeling  by  all  the  rest  is  its  world, 
and  the  sum  of  the  modifications  of  all  feelings  is  the 
world. 

How  one  substantial  feeling  can  become  aware  of  the 
existence  of  another  is  a  question-  requiring  more  de- 
tailed treatment  than  can  be  given  it  here;  but  that 
each  such  feeling  is  completely  impervious  to  all  others 
is  a  fact  of  hourly  experience.  By  no  possibility  can  I 
feel  your  toothache,  however  clearly  I  may  realize  it 
in  my  own  imagination.  You  must  always  be  to  me  an 
hypothesis  (or  vTroa-Taaw).  This  is  the  price  we  pay 
for  our  eternal  individuality.  Nor  does  it  involve  ag- 

*  We  must  take  care  not  to  imagine  that  behind  the  "  fundamental 
feelings"  (Rosmini's  phrase)  there  is  a  substance,  unpenetrated  by  feel- 
ing. Such  a  thing-in-itself,  being  beyond  experience,  would  open  the 
door  for  a  boundless  agnosticism. 


INTRODUCTORY  O 

nosticism,  but  merely  the  consequence  that  omniscience 
is  a  social  product,  shared  in  by  all  beings. 

If  we  adopt  this  view  of  the  constitution  of  the  world, 
a  view  accordant  with  all  experience,  we  see  at  once  that 
all  evolution  is,  in  a  sense,  education.  It  is  the  gradual 
internal  differentiation  of  substantial  feelings,  their 
transformation  or  articulation,  through  mutual  desire 
and  interaction,  into  worlds.  Education,  in  the  widest 
sense,  may  be  defined  as  the  upbuilding  of  a  world  in 
feeling  or  in  consciousness.  With  our  present  habit  of 
confining  feeling  to  the  animal  world,  and  making  it 
include  a  certain  amount  of  memory  or  consciousness, 
we  find  it  hard  to  regard  the  inanimate  mineral  world, 
and  even  the  animate  vegetable  world,  as  due  to  the  in- 
teraction of  feelings.  Yet  all  that  they  are  to  us  is  so 
much  feeling — so  many  clusters  of  sensation — and,  un- 
less we  are  to  attribute  the  introduction  of  life  to  a 
miracle,  and  acknowledge  the  bankruptcy  of  science, 
we  must  regard  the  very  lowest  forms  of  matter  as,  to 
a  certain  extent,  alive  and  sentient.  One  thing  is  ob- 
vious: except  in  so  far  as  they  are  feelings,  we  can 
never  know  anything  about  them.  And  what  could 
they  be  in  or  for  themselves,  that  is,  apart  from  our 
knowledge  of  them,  if  they  were  not  feelings? 

If  this  reasoning  is  correct,  then  the  entire  evolution 
of  the  world,  from  lowest  to  highest,  is  simply  the  ex- 
ternal aspect  of  the  education  of  substantial  feelings, 
or,  to  use  a  familiar  term,  of  spirits.  It  is  true,  indeed, 
that  actual  experience  has  not  enabled  us  to  supply  all 
the  links  in  the  long  chain.  Especially  desiderated  are 
the  links  between  the  inanimate  and  the  animate,  and 
between  instinctive  and  ethical  life.  Yet  we  need  not 


6  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

despair  of  one  day  discovering  these.  Of  the  former, 
Huxley,  a  sober  witness,  says:  "  With  organic  chemistry, 
molecular  physics,  and  physiology  yet  in  their  infancy, 
and  every  day  making  prodigious  strides,  I  think  it 
would  be  the  height  of  presumption  for  any  man  to  say 
that  the  conditions  under  which  matter  assumes  the 
properties  we  call  '  vital '  may  not,  some  day,  be  arti- 
ficially brought  together.  .  .  .  If  it  were  given  me 
to  look  beyond  the  abyss  of  geologically  recorded  time 
to  the  still  more  remote  period  when  the  earth  was 
passing  through  physical  and  chemical  changes,  which 
it  can  no  more  see  again  than  a  man  can  recall  his  in- 
fancy, I  should  expect  to  be  a  witness  of  the  evolution 
of  living  protoplasm  from  not  living  matter."  *  Of  the 
second  missing  link  I  shall  speak  further  on. 

One  more  quotation  from  Huxley!  "  If  there  is  one 
thing  clear  about  the  progress  of  modern  science,  it  ia 
the  tendency  to  reduce  all  scientific  problems,  except 
those  which  are  purely  mathematical,  to  questions  of 
molecular  physics — that  is  to  say,  to  the  attractions, 
repulsions,  motions,  and  co-ordination  of  the  ultimate 
particles  of  matter.  Social  phenomena  are  the  result  of 
interaction  of  the  components  of  society,  or  men,  with 
one  another  and  the  surrounding  universe."  f  Huxley 
had  to  remain  an  agnostic  (to  use  a  word  of  his  own 
invention)  to  the  end  of  his  days.  The  reason  why  he 
did  so  is  plain  from  the  above  quotation.  He  main- 
tained that  all  scientific  problems,  not  strictly  mathe- 

*  Lay  Sermons,  Addresses,  and  Reviews,  p.  366.  How  something  living 
can  evolve  from  something  not-living  is  utterly  inconceivable,  implying 
creation.  Huxley  (ibid.,  p.  146)  tells  us  that  "matter  may  be  regarded 
as  a  form  of  thought,"  which  is  hardly  correct. 

\lbid.,  p.  166. 


INTRODUCTORY  7 

matical,  must  be  solved  in  terms  of  the  relations  of  the 
ultimate  elements  of  matter,  and  then  most  gratuitously 
assumed  that  these  elements  were  "particles."  But 
such  particles  do  not  come  within  the  reach  of  experi- 
ence, and,  if  they  did,  they  could  only  be  groups  of 
feelings.  Hence,  the  ultimate  elements  of  matter  are 
feelings.  Let  us,  then,  substitute  "  feelings  "  for  "  par- 
ticles "  in  the  quotation,  and  we  at  once  do  away  with 
the  possibility  of  agnosticism,  and  obtain  a  formula 
which  accounts  for  evolution,  from  first  to  last — even 
for  the  mathematical  aspect  of  it.  We  may  now  write: 
All  scientific  problems  may  be  reduced  to  the  attrac- 
tions, repulsions,  motions,  and  co-ordination  of  the  ul- 
timate substantial  feelings.  Even  social  phenomena  are 
the  result  of  the  interaction  of  the  components  of  society, 
of  men  (who  are  merely  substantial  feelings  highly  dif- 
ferentiated through  long  and  extensive  interaction), 
with  one  another  and  with  the  remaining  universe  of 
substantial  feelings  of  all  grades.  In  other  words,  all 
the  world  that  we  know,  or  can  know,  consists  of 
primitive  substantial  feelings,  differentiating  themselves, 
through  interaction,  into  worlds.  The  voluntary  or 
reflective  part  of  this  differentiation  we  call  education. 
It  is  fortunate  that  there  exist  now,  in  the  world, 
beings  at  all  stages  of  evolution,  from  matter  up  to  man, 
and  that  the  latter  is  the  sum  and  epitome  of  the  en- 
tire process  thus  far.  In  spite  of  this,  we  find  it  very 
difficult  to  realize  the  exceedingly  simple  psychical  life 
of  the  primal  elements  of  inorganic  matter,  and  even 
of  organic  bodies  of  low  type — plants,  microbes,  snails, 
etc.  The  attractions  and  repulsions,  resulting  in  the 
motions  and  co-ordinations  of  material  molecules,  we 


8  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

can  conceive  only  as  due  to  the  desires  of  spirits,  and 
yet  we  cannot  throw  ourselves  back  into  their  inner 
states.  The  case  is  not  very  different  with  plant  life. 
Who  can  realize  the  feelings  and  desires  of  those  primal 
elements  which  build  up  an  oak  or  a  vine?  Yet  we 
can  hardly  doubt  that  a  feeling  of  thirst  is  what  makes 
a  plant  send  out  its  root-mouths  in  the  direction  of 
water,  and  a  feeling  of  weakness  what  induces  it  to 
encircle  a  support  with  its  tendril-arms.  So,  in  gen- 
eral, perhaps,  we  may  interpret  the  actions  of  plants  in 
terms  of  our  own  feelings.  And  this  we  can  do  more 
securely  in  the  case  of  animals.  No  one  can  well  doubt 
that  a  monkey,  a  dog,  a  rabbit,  a  tadpole,  or  an  amoeba 
eats,  drinks,  and  moves  in  consequence  of  feelings  simi- 
lar to  ours  when  we  do  the  same.  Thus  we  are  able,  in 
ways  more  or  less  vague,  to  realize  to  ourselves  those 
sentient  desires  which  are  the  agents  in  all  evolution, 
and  so,  to  that  extent,  to  understand  the  world.  It 
may  be  that,  in  the  future,  through  hypnotism  or  some 
such  agency,  we  shall  be  able  to  recall  into  conscious- 
ness the  entire  course  of  past  evolution. 

Evolution,  then,  is  the  material  of  science,  including 
history,  and  of  philosophy.  In  the  future,  philosophy 
will  not,  as  in  the  past,  imitate  theology  in  trying  to 
dictate  to  science  from  without,  but  will  be  simply  the 
complete  record  of  which  the  particular  sciences  are  the 
co-ordinated  parts.*  Even  now  philosophy  is  able  to 
tell  us  that  all  evolution  is  a  matter  of  association  for 
the  satisfaction  of  desire,  f  that  the  universe  is  essentially 

*  Philosophy  is  completely  unified  knowledge.  Spencer,  first  Prin- 
ciples, Pt.  II. ,  cap.  1 ,  §  37. 

tSee  Aristotle.  Politics,  I.,  1;  1252a  seq.;  Ethics,  I.,  1;  1094a  seq.; 
and  cf.  Dante,  Purg.,  X.,  XI. 


INTRODUCTORY  9 

social;  that  the  evolution  of  sentient  individuals  into 
an  ever  richer  world  depends  upon  ever  widening  and 
deepening  relations  to  other  sentient  individuals;  that 
socialism  and  individualism  are  absolutely  co-extensive 
all  the  world  over.  What  is  true  of  human  society  is 
true  of  all  nature;  and  the  principles  which  we  find 
governing  the  former  we  may  confidently  look  for  in 
the  latter.  The  true  meaning  of  the  lowest  phases  of 
evolution  can  be  found  only  in  the  highest,  just  as  the 
meaning  of  the  acorn  can  be  found  only  in  the  full- 
grown  oak.*  The  first  step  will  not  be  fully  under- 
stood until  the  last  is  taken,  which  will  never  be! 

Taking  human  society,  then,  as  the  highest  type  of 
all  association,  we  can  readily  see  that  it  has  three  pos- 
sible forms,  and  no  more  f — (1)  co-ordination  or  democ- 
racy, (2)  individual  superordination,  or  monarchy,  and 
(3)  a  combination  of  the  two,  oligarchy.  The  bodies  in 
the  mineral  world  seem  to  be  democracies,  no  atom  or 
individual  being  lord  over  another;  and  the  same  is 
true,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  the  plant  world.  Many  of 
the  lower  forms  of  animal  life — worms,  protozoa,  ccel- 
enterates,  etc.,  are  oligarchies;  J  but  the  higher  we  go  in 
the  scale  the  more  nearly  do  the  forms  approach  the 
condition  of  monarchy.  In  man,  the  sentient  elements 
composing  the  body  are  in  almost  entire  subjection  to 
the  central  sentience  which  he  calls  himself.  §  Where 
there  is  no  rebellion,  we  have  a  man  of  integrity,  an 
integer;  otherwise,  a  dissolute  or  fractional  man.  But 

*  In  Aristotelian  language,  the  oak  it  the  "  what-it-was-ness  "  (TO  «' 
%»  tlvai)  of  the  acorn.  See  Metaph.,  Z.,  4 ;  1030a,  17,  with  Bonitz's  note. 

t  See  Aristotle,  Politics,  III.,  7 ;  1279a,  22  seq. 

j  Rosmini,  Psychology.  §  462  seq.  Geddes  and  Thomson,  Evolution  of 
Sex,  Chapp.  VIL,  XIV. 

§  Shakespeare,  Sonnet  CXLVI. 


10  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

even  in  a  completely  integral  body,  monarchical  as  a 
bee-hive,  there  are  arrangements  for  swarming,  or  col- 
onizing. Certain  subordinate  combinations,  which  we 
call  reproductive  cells,  sunder  themselves  naturally  from 
the  whole,  and,  carrying  with  them  its  potentialities, 
set  up  a  new  monarchy,  a  new  human  body,  for  them- 
selves. In  the  case  of  these,  the  process  of  evolution, 
which  originally  took  millions  upon  millions  of  years, 
is  completed  in  a  few  prenatal  months.  Thus,  through 
beneficent  association,  every  animal  organism  is  able  to 
raise  subordinate  organisms,  of  almost  the  lowest  form, 
to  its  own  level  in  a  short  time,  and  thus  spare  them 
uncounted  ages  of  evolutionary  struggle.  It  is  no  se- 
cret at  the  present  day  that  the  human  embryo,  before 
birth,  goes  through  the  whole  process  of  evolution,  as- 
suming, in  an  ascending  series,  all  the  lower  forms  of 
animal  life,  just  as,  after  birth,  it  passes  through  all  the 
phases  of  ethical  life.  It  is  all  one  continuous  process, 
producing  ever  more  complete  and  independent  indi- 
viduals, through  ever  deepening  and  widening  social  re- 
lations. Here  come  in  the  great  questions  of  heredity 
and  habituation. 

If,  now,  we  ask  how,  out  of  primitive  desiderant  feel- 
ings, the  various  types  of  animal  life — microbes,  mol- 
lusks,  whales,  men — have  arisen,  we  readily  find  an 
intelligible  answer,  supported  by  obvious  facts,  and  at 
the  same  time  full  of  meaning  for  the  educator.  As  we 
have  already  seen,  the  primitive  desiderant  feelings, 
whose  interaction  evolves  the  world  and  explains  it, 
have  two  aspects — a  passive  (feeling)  and  an  active  (de- 
sire). In  the  lowest  phases  of  existence  these  are  com- 
pletely balanced,  a  fact  which  we  express  by  saying  that, 


INTRODUCTORY  11 

in  physics,  action  and  reaction  are  always  equal.  But, 
just  in  proportion  as  we  rise  in  the  scale  of  being,  and 
reaction  becomes  less  and  less  immediate,  this  balance 
disappears.  Indeed,  we  may  perhaps  say  that  the  posi- 
tion of  beings  in  that  scale  is  determined  by  their  power 
to  inhibit  direct  reaction  and  to  treasure  up  their  passive 
impressions  for  future  use,  such  treasuring-up  being  the 
origin  of  consciousness.  Consciousness  is,  from  one 
point  of  view,  inhibited  reaction.  So  long  as  impres- 
sions are  treasured  up,  solely  with  a  view  to  purposive 
future  reactions,  the  balance  between  action  and  reac- 
tion may  still  be  kept  even,  and  this  is  the  only  healthy 
condition  of  things;  but  it  may  also  become  uneven, 
either  because  impressions  are  treasured  up  for  the  mere 
pleasure  they  give,  or  because  the  reactions  are  excessive 
or  purposeless.  In  the  former  case,  we  have  a  stagnant, 
dalliant  sensuality;  in  the  latter,  a  fatuous,  spasmodic 
activity.  Both  these  are  equally  unfavorable  to  evolu- 
tion, the  one  producing  beings  of  the  Caliban,  the  other, 
beings  of  the  Ariel,  type.*  Just  as  the  perfect  balance 
between  passive  feeling  and  active  desire  keeps  open  the 
path  of  evolution,  so  the  loss  of  this  balance  blocks  it, 
and  gives  rise  to  all  the  sub-human,  unprogressive  forms 
of  life,  and  to  all  those  types  of  humanity — savages, 
barbarians,  heathens  f — that  have  fallen,  or  are  falling, 
behind  in  the  race  of  life.  If  a  house  divided  against 
itself  cannot  stand,  so  a  living  being  whose  nature  is 
out  of  balance  cannot  progress — a  fact  of  no  small  con- 

*See  The  Tempest.  It  is  quite  evident  that  Caliban  and  Ariel  are 
meant,  respectively,  as  types  of  sensuality  and  caprice.  Ferdinand  and 
Miranda  are  balanced  progressive  types. 

•f  'EfiviKot,  peoples  who,  though  civilized,  have  not  risen  above  national 
or  race  interests.  The  future  belongs  to  peoples  who  have  risen  to  hu- 
man interests. 


12  THE  HISTOEY  OF  EDUCATION 

sequence  to  educators.  Many  living  types  have  died  out 
from  mere  inner  disharmony  or  one-sided  evolution.* 
Man  has  risen  above  the  brute  condition  simply  because 
he  has  been  able  to  hold  the  balance  between  feeling 
and  action  comparatively  even,  and  his  further  advance 
will  depend  upon  how  far  he  is  able  to  do  this  in  the 
future.  Though,  from  one  point  of  view,  he  stands 
over  against,  or  above,  nature,  f  in  another,  he  is  merely 
its  highest  product.  In  order  to  explain  him,  its  entire 
process  is  required,  and  this  can  be  learnt  only  through 
scientific  investigation.  "  To  ingenious  attempts  at  ex- 
plaining by  the  light  of  reason  things  which  want  the 
light  of  history  to  show  their  meaning,  much  of  the 
learned  nonsense  of  the  world  has  indeed  been  due."  \ 

*  Tennyson,  In  Memor,,  LV.,  LVL,  CXVUL 

tBy  "nature,"  I,  of  course,  mean,  not  a  power  standing  outside  and 
above  the  individuals  whose  interactions  produce  the  world,  but  merely 
the  sum  and  system  of  those  interactions  themselves.  It  is  unfortunate 
that,  in  our  time,  Nature  (with  a  capital)  is  often  spoken  of  as  if  it  were 
God,  minus  consciousness. 

JTylor,  Primitive  Culture,  Vol.  L,  pp.  19seq. 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE  RISE  OF  INTELLIGENCE 

Under  what  circumstances,  and  how  long  ago,  man 
first  rose  above  the  brute,  we  cannot  at  present  say. 
That  the  event  may  have  been  sudden,  like  an  avalanche, 
or  the  turning  of  a  balance,  is  quite  possible;  that  it 
took  place  many  millions  of  years  ago  seems  certain. 
In  the  course  of  that  long  period,  certain  portions  of 
the  race — those  which  have  kept  open  the  path  of  evo- 
lution— have  passed  through  the  stages  of  (1)  Savagery, 
(2)  Barbarism,  (3)  Civicism  or  Civilization,  and  are  now 
advancing  to  (4)  Humanism — while  the  rest  have  re- 
mained behind,  some  at  each  of  the  lower  stages.  Now, 
since  each  of  these  stages  has  its  corresponding  educa- 
tion, the  History  of  Education  naturally  falls  into 
four  divisions:  (1)  savage,  (2)  barbarian,  (3)  civic,  (4) 
human.  We  shall  treat  them  in  this  order;  but  before 
doing  so,  we  must  outline  the  leading  features  of  each 
of  the  divisions,  and,  first  of  all,  state  the  principles 
according  to  which  they  are  distinguished. 

Though  the  grades  of  humanization  pass,  for  the  most 
part,  insensibly  into  each  other,  yet,  regarded  from  a 
sufficient  distance,  they  are  readily  distinguishable. 
The  scale  upon  which  all  evolution  is  measured  is  simply 
that  of  being.  That  which  is  more  is  higher  than  that 

13 


14  THE   HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

which  is  less.  Now,  since,  as  we  have  seen,  being  is 
feeling,  or  desiderant  feeling,  it  follows  that  that  which 
has  (or,  rather,  is)  more,  and  more  highly  differentiated, 
feeling  and  desire,  is  higher  than  that  which  has  less. 
And  we  may  perhaps  set  it  down  that  the  body  of  every 
living  being  fairly  represents  the  amount  and  articula- 
tion of  its  desiderant  feeling;  for,  as  Spenser  says, 
"  The  soul  is  form,  and  doth  the  body  make/' 

Here  is  offered  a  favorable  opportunity  for  withdraw- 
ing the  clumsy  expression,  "  desiderant  feeling/'  and 
substituting  for  it  the  ordinary  term,  "  soul,"  which, 
when  carefully  examined,  proves  to  have  just  that  mean- 
ing. Soul  is  the  fundamental,  substantial  feeling  and 
desire,  of  which  all  other  feelings  and  desires,  and, 
ultimately,  the  known  world  itself,  are  determinations  or 
articulations.  My  world  is  nothing  but  my  self  or  soul 
— the  feeling  which  I  am — modified  and  articulated. 
We  shall  see  later  what  is  implied  in  such  articulation. 
One  group  of  such  articulations  is  the  body,  a  system 
of  subordinate  feelings,  by  which  the  soul  carries  out 
further  articulations  and  produces  its  world.  If  the 
view  here  taken  of  the  soul  be  correct,  then  the  much 
vexed  question  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  becomes 
almost  ridiculous.  Can  that  of  which  all  things  in  time 
and  space,  and  these  themselves,  are  but  modifications, 
vanish  in  time?  So  long  as  feeling  and  desire  continue 
merely  such,  so  long  the  soul  which  they  constitute 
remains  in  a  brute  condition,  without  any  world  of 
things.*  It  is  only  when,  under  the  pressure  of  com- 
plicated and  unmanageable  experience,  they  give  birth 
to  intelligence  and  will,  themselves  remaining  in  the 

*  See  Ariatotle,  Jfetaphys.,  L,  1 ;  980b,  25  seq. 


THE   RISE   OF   INTELLIGENCE  15 

form  of  love,*  that  the  soul  emerges  from  this  condi- 
tion, and  begins  to  have  a  world  of  things,  with  lan- 
guage to  designate  them  by.  It  is  then  that  it  begins 
to  be  human.  Intelligence  is  simply  the  grouping  of 
feelings  and  the  referring  of  them,  as  so  grouped,  to 
origins,  or  subjects,  or-  things.  Thinking  is,  in  the 
strictest  sense,  thing-ing,  f  Until  there  are  things, 
there  are  no  thoughts,  and  vice  versa.  As  soon  as  things 
are  thought  J  and  symbolized,  then  desire,  taking  the 
form  of  will,  relates  itself  to  them  as  means,  or  instru- 
ments, of  satisfaction — the  only  possible  end.  Since 
subjects,  or  things,  can  never  be  matters  of  experience, 
but  are,  so  to  speak,  hypotheses,  §  to  group  experience 
for  use  as  means,  they  can  be  realized  only  through 
symbols  or  conventions,  ||  and  of  such  language  consists. 
All  words  originally  designated  things,  that  is,  hypo- 
thetical agents,  uniting  and  causing  certain  groups  of 
experiences.  What  corresponds  internally  to  the  outered 
or  uttered  word  is  the  concept,  or  grasping-together  of 
experiences  (Begriff),  a  combining  act  of  the  soul, 
capable  of  indefinite  repetition. 

In  emerging  from  the  brute  state,  then,  man  found 

*  We  thus  see  why  love  is  never  quite  rational,  though  it  constantly 
tends  to  become  so. 

"  To  be  wise  and  love 
Exceeds  man's  might ;  that  dwells  with  gods  above." 

Troilus  and  Cressida,  III.,  2. 

tCf.  Ger.  denken,  Ding ;  Latin  rear,  res ;  Greek  xpaw  (declare),  XPW&- 
In  Hebrew,  dabhar  means  both  thought  and  thing.  Cf.  Arabic  shay' 
(thing),  from  sfia'a  (desire). 

t  In  the  second  Prologue  to  Faust,  the  Lord  says  to  the  archangels  : 
"The  Becoming  (i.e.,  genesis,  evolution),  which  ever  works  and  lives, 
embrace  you  with  love's  gracious  bounds  ;  and  what  hovers  in  unsteady 
seeming,  do  ye  make  steady  with  enduring  thoughts."  Nothing  could  be 
finer ! 

§  "  Hypothesis  "  (vjrdSeaw)  means  exactly  the  same  as  "  subject "  (snb- 
jectwri). 

|  Sujt/SoAov,  convention,  watch-word,  creed. 


16  THE  HI8TOEY   OF   EDUCATION 

himself  a  thinking,  loving,  willing  being,  in  a  world 
of  concrete  things  or  beings,  grasped  by  means  of  sym- 
bols and  available  as  instruments  of  satisfaction.  In 
other  words,  he  found  himself  a  symbol-making,  aim- 
setting,  tool-using  animal.  The  symbol-making  power 
which  gave  him  his  present,  real  world  enabled  him  to 
project  into  the  future  a  more  satisfactory,  ideal  world; 
his  aim-setting  faculty,  love,  turned  this  into  an  object 
of  aspiration;  and  his  tool-using  gift  made  him  employ 
the  present  world  as  a  means  for  realizing  it.*  Such 
has  been,  and  is,  the  life  of  man.  In  the  first  stages  of 
his  career,  his  world,  his  aims,  and  his  tools  were  meagre; 
but  as  he  advanced  they  became  richer.  This  increasing 
richness  coincides  with  the  progress  of  civilization. 

In  distinguishing  the  grades  of  civilization,  then,  and 
the  corresponding  forms  of  education,  we  must  consider, 
at  different  stages,  (1)  man's  actual  world,  (2)  his  ideal 
world,  (3)  the  manner  and  degree  in  which  he  uses  the 
former  for  the  realization  of  the  latter.  The  first  will 
give  us  his  science;  the  second,  his  art;  the  third,  his 
ethics,  corresponding,  respectively,  to  the  True,  the 
Beautiful,  and  the  Good.  The  True  is  what  man  holds 
to  be;  the  Beautiful  (or  desirable),  what  he  holds  ought 
to  be;  f  the  Good,  the  choice  and  use  of  the  proper  means 
for  passing  from  the  True  to  the  Beautiful.  The  Beau- 
tiful, when  realized,  becomes  the  True,  which  again 
makes  way  for  a  higher  Beautiful.  It  is  plain  from  this 
that  education,  at  each  stage,  falls  into  three  branches: 
(1)  Education  in  the  formation  of  an  actual  world,  (2) 

*  He  holds  even  the  sun  and  moon  to  be  made  for  his  use.  See  Gen.  I., 
14,  and  cf.  the  opening  chapter  of  the  Sentence*  of  Peter  the  Lombard, 
in  which  the  present  world  ia  treated  as  means. 

t  "  Beauty  is  its  own  excuse  for  being. " — EMERSON. 


THE  RISE  OP  INTELLIGENCE  17 

Education  in  the  conception  of  an  ideal  world,  (3)  Edu- 
cation in  the  method  of  using  the  former  for  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  latter. 

If  man's  faculties  always  developed  evenly  and  har- 
moniously, the  history  of  civilization  and  education 
would  be  easy  to  write;  but  since,  as  we  have  seen,  this 
is  not  the  case;  since  there  is  much  one-sided  develop- 
ment, and  consequent  retardation  or  retrogression,  much 
variety  and  difficulty  are  introduced  into  the  task.  As 
affording  practical  lessons,  the  history  of  retarded  or 
frustrated  developments  is  as  valuable  as  that  of  healthy 
or  normal  ones.  The  lower  grades  of  civilization  are 
very  similar  all  the  world  over;*  but  as  we  advance  the 
number  of  aberrations  increases.  Hence,  while  we  can 
treat  savage  education  in  a  single  chapter,  each  of  the 
higher  grades  will  require  several. 

*  "  One  set  of  savages  is  like  another,"  said  Dr.  Johnson,  and  this  is 
largely  confirmed  by  modern  research.  See  Tylor.  Primitive  Culture. 
VoLI.,pp.6seq.  ' 


CHAPTER  III. 

SAVAGE  EDUCATION 

In  the  instinctive  act  all  is  hereditary ;  in  the  reflective  act  there 
is  nothing  hereditary ;  everything  is  derived  through  imitation,  or 
taught  by  experience. — PANIZZI,  Le  Tre  Leggi,  p.  57. 

It  is  certain  that  man  attains  his  position  of  pre-eminence  above 
all  other  animals  .  .  .  essentially  through  the  fact  that  he  is 
able  to  produce,  that  is,  by  his  labor  to  transform  that  which  in 
nature  is  useless  into  things  useful  and  fit  for  consumption. — Ibid., 
p.  74. 

Sacramental  words,  according  to  Catholic  doctrine,  are  words  of 
power. — SYDNEY  F.  SMITH,  S.J.,  in  Contemporary  Review,  January, 
1897,  p.  35. 

In  all  stages  of  civilization  the  human  being  "  comes 
into  the  world/'  not  as  a  naked  soul,  or  sensibility,  but 
with  an  organized  body,  and  with  its  feeling  and  desire 
correspondingly  organized  in  the  form  of  senses  and 
spontaneities.  It  is  the  function  of  education  to  train 
these,  so  that  he  may  attain  the  greatest  possible  satis- 
faction or  harmony.  This  harmony,  the  essential  con- 
dition of  evolution,  is  twofold,  harmony  among  his 
faculties  and  harmony  with  his  environments,*  sub- 
human and  human.  The  chief  influence  in  the  training 
of  the  human  faculties  is  Imitation,!  or,  viewed  from 
the  other  side,  Example,  which,  as  culture  advances, 

*  On  these  harmonies  see  Plato,  Republic. 

tSee  Baldwin,  Mental  Deuelopment,  Chapp.  IX.-XIL 

18 


SAVAGE  EDUCATION  19 

gives  way  to  Precept  or  Instruction.  .  At  the  savage 
stage,  education  is  mainly  imitation,  Becoming,  with 
time,  more  and  more  conscious,  but  never  requiring  any 
special  institution  or  school  for  its  impartment.  ' 

Man,  as  we  have  seen,  in  building  up  a  world  through, 
and  for,  intelligence  and  will,  does  so  by  grouping  his 
feelings  or  experiences  into  things,  or  objects,  through 
concepts,  or  ideas,*  which  he  fixes  and  holds  by  means 
of  symbols.  These  symbols  play  so  important  a  part 
in  the  growth  of  intelligence  that  they  deserve  careful 
consideration.  They  are,  namely,  of  two  kinds,  (1) 
audible,  (2)  visible.  The  former  go  to  constitute  lan- 
guage; the  latter,  religion.  Thus  language  and  religion 
have  a  common  root,  and  are  as  old  as  the  dawning  of 
intelligence.  We  may,  indeed,  say  that  all  primitive 
thought  is  religious  or  superstitious. 

It  is  difficult  for  us,  moderns,  to  realize  how  concept 
and  sensible  symbol  were  related  to  each  other  in  the 
mind  of  the  savage.  We  may  perhaps  say  that,  for  him, 
the  symbol,  instead  of  representing  the  object,  contained 
its  essence  or  concept.  Hence  the  extreme  importance 
attached  by  him  to  the  audible  word  and  the  visible 
fetich,  f  In  uttering  the  name  of  a  thing,  he  was  breath- 
ing forth  its  essence,  for  good  or  for  evil;  in  adoring 
or  anointing  a  fetich,  he  was  controlling  its  essence. \ 

*  These  ideas  are  simply  distinctions  in  feeling. 

t  Such  fetich  might  be  natural  or  artificial.  Art  owes  its  origin  to  th« 
endeavor  to  make  natural  fetiches  conform  to  the  concepts  contained  in 
them.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  word  shem,  in  the  language  of 
the  Hebrews,  who  have  carried  the  religious  stage  of  thought  to  its  high- 
est perfection,  means  (1)  essence,  (2)  name,  (3)  monument  or  fetich.  See 
the  Third  Commandment,  and  cf.  Deut.  XII.  5 ;  1  Kings  VIII.  16,  19 ; 
Is.  LV.  13  etc.;  also  Westcott,  Epist.  of  St.  John,  pp.  243-45;  Schrader, 
Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  Vol.  I.,  p.  4,  note*  (Bng.  Trans.). 

JCf.  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  115  seq.,  and  last  quotation 
at  the  head  of  this  chapter. 


20  THE   HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Herein  we  have  the  original  form  of  worship,  namely, 
magic,  made  up  of  incantation  and  ritual.  The  distinc- 
tion of  essence,  concept,  and  symhol  has  been  one  of 
the  hardest  tasks  of  intelligence. 

Though  savage  education,  as  not  being  conscious  evo- 
lution, might  properly  be  excluded  from  treatment  in 
this  book,  it  may,  nevertheless,  be  briefly  considered,  on 
the  ground  that  it  shows,  in  their  primitive  form,  the 
two  departments  of  all  education — education  with  refer- 
ence to  the  seen  and  education  with  reference  to  the  un- 
seen, or,  roughly  speaking,  practical  education  and 
theoretical  education.  The  savage  divides  his  activities 
between  work  and  worship.  Through  both  he  seeks 
the  satisfaction  of  his  desires,  which  at  first  are  but  two 
— hunger  and  love.  Under  the  former  we  include  all 
those  physical  desires  that  have  reference  only  to  the 
individual  himself — thirst,  desire  for  clothing,  shelter, 
rest,  etc.;  under  the  latter,  those  that  have  reference 
to  other  individuals — desires  for  self-reproduction,  the 
pleasures  of  family  life,  etc.  The  former  is  the  source 
of  all  the  egoistic  or  selfish  feelings;  the  latter,  of  all 
the  altruistic  or  neighborly  feelings.  By  work,  the 
primitive  man  seeks  to  satisfy  the  hunger  (defined  as 
above)  of  himself  and  family;  by  worship,  to  guard 
them  against  danger  from  those  powers  which  he  imag- 
ines as  lying  behind  the  phenomena,  but  against  which 
his  own  strength  is  unavailing.  The  rule  of  work  forms 
the  basis  of  ethics,  which  culminate  in  politics  and 
cosmopolitics;  the  presuppositions  of  worship  form  the 
basis  of  religion,  and,  later  on,  of  art,  science,  and  phi- 
losophy. In  work,  man  uses  things;  in  worship,  the 
essences  or  "  names  "  of  things.  The  former  are  always 


SAVAGE  EDUCATION 


r 


individual;  the  latter,  always  universal.  The  visible 
stone,  or  tree,  is  confined  within  its  own  limits;  the  es- 
sence, or  name,  within  the  stone  or  tree  has  far-reaching 
influence.  When  this  distinction  is  clearly  drawn,  the 
essence  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  pass  from  thing  to 
thing,  e.g.,  from  a  human  body  into  a  stone;  and,  later 
on,  to  be  capable  of  subsisting  by  itself,  and  moving 
from  place  to  place.  Thus  arises  the  notion  of  disem- 
bodied essences  or  ghosts.  One  can  even  make  an  es- 
sence pass  into  a  thing  by  pronouncing  its  "name" 
over  it;  hence  the  practice  of  consecration.  When 
essences  are  conceived  as  connected  with  large  portions 
of  nature — sky,  sea,  earth,  sun,  moon — they  become 


Savage  education,  then,  consists  in  learning  how  to 
obtain  the  necessaries  of  life  for  self  and  family,  and  how 
to  propitiate  the  unseen  powers  supposed  to  be  active 
in  nature.  In  his  efforts  after  the  former  the  savage 
learns  the  use  of  tools  and  means,  and  is  thus  clearly 
distinguished  from  the  lower  animals.  He  also  learns 
to  manufacture  tools  and  means  from  wood,  stone,  clay, 
bone,  wool,  fibre,  and  hides.  Of  the  use  of  the  metals 
and  of  fire  he  knows  nothing.  His  affections  are  con- 
fined to  the  members  of  his  family  or  tribe,  and  to  those 
things  upon  which  he  depends  for  his  well-being — cat- 
tle, dogs,  etc. — and  the  spirits  of  his  ancestors.  All  these, 
indeed,  are  considered  members  of  the  tribe,  bound  to- 
gether by  blood-ties,*  the  only  ties  he  knows.  To  him, 

*  To  strengthen  these  ties,  some  member  of  the  tribe — a  man  or  an 
animal — is  killed  from  time  to  time,  and  his,  or  its,  flesh  and  blood  par- 
taken of  by  all  the  other  members,  the  ancestral  ghosts  receiving  their 
portion  in  the  form  of  blood  poured  upon  the  stone  or  other  object  into 
which  their  essence  is  supposed  to  have  passed.  This  is  the  origin  of 
sacrifice,  which  originally  has  nothing  to  do  with  propitiation.  See 
Robertson  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  pp.  236  seq. 


22  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

kin  and  friend,  non-kin  and  enemy,  are  synonymous 
terms.*  His  will  is  trained  to  run  in  definite  conven- 
tional ruts,  and  is  hardly  ever  exercised  in  original  ways. 
Indeed,  the  savage,  despite  his  apparent  liberty,  is,  in 
almost  every  sense,  a  slave — a  slave  to  his  own  needs  and 
to  dread  of  unseen  powers.  Even  in  the  use  of  material 
things  he  has  no  freedom;  for  he  is  continually  afraid 
of  offending  the  essences  contained  in  them.  Hence  he 
wastes  his  time  in  the  performance  of  all  sorts  of  pro- 
pitiatory rites,  and,  after  all,  does  not  get  rid  of  fear.f 

Though  there  are  many  grades  of  savagery,  J  and  the 
line  between  it  and  barbarism  is  not  clearly  defined,  yet 
its  chief  characteristics  may  be  enumerated.  Savages 
learn  to  use  things,  but  rarely  forces*  hence  their  chief 
implements  and  vessels  are  of  woob,  stone,  or  clay, 
which  can  be  shaped  without  fire.  They  devour  their 
food  without  cooking,  and,  being  nomads,  live  either  in 
natural  caves  or  in  temporary  huts.  Their  arts  are  con- 
fined to  the  manufacture  of  hunting  and  fishing  imple- 
ments, earthen  vessels,  and  clothing.  In  the  ornamen- 
tation of  these  they  sometimes  show  rudiments  of  an 
artistic  sense.  They  acknowledge  no  social  tie  but  the 
blood  tie;  hence,  their  highest  form  of  organization  is 
the  "  sib,"  family,  or  clan.  They  are  governed  by  use 

*  In  Scotland,  even  to-day  "  freen'  "  quite  often  means  kin. 

t  For  many  ages  this  fear  prevented  savages  from  applying  fire  to 
human  uses.  It  was  held  to  be  divine  and  inviolable,  and  the  story  of 
Prometheus1  theft  of  it  from  heaven,  and  of  the  vengeance  which  pursued 
him.  is  merely  an  echo  of  the  feelings  which  followed  this  application. 
In  the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  the  same  fear  of  polluting  fire  exists  even  at 
the  present  day.  See  Frazer,  The  Oolden  Bough,  passim. 

J  These  depend  largely  upon  climate.  In  warm  regions,  where  hunger 
can  be  satisfied  without  labor  or  implements,  and  clothing  and  shelter 
are  hardly  needed,  men  rise  but  little  above  the  higher  brutes.  It  is  in 
ruder  climates,  where  "  necessity  is  the  mother  of  invention,"  that  they 
rise  higher.  Grade  of  invention  marks  grade  of  culture. 


SAVAGE  EDUCATION  23 

and  wont,  not  having  reached  that  degree  of  abstraction 
and  generalization  which  would  enable  them  to  formu- 
late laws.  It  follows  that  free  individualism  has  no 
place  among  them.  Their  religion,  which  is  also  their 
science,  is  animism,  or  a  belief  in  essences  of  a  ghostly 
sort,  pervading  all  nature;  consequently,  their  worship 
consists  of  magical  ceremonies,  intended  to  propitiate 
these.  In  such  circumstances  it  is  easy  to  see  that  their 
whole  education  is  obtained  through  imitation,  or  use 
and  wont — avvijOeia,  as  the  Greeks  said.  The  further 
progress  of  culture  consists  in  the  gradual  evolution  of 
the  individual,  that  is,  his  emancipation  from  use  and 
wont. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

BARBARIAN  EDUCATION 

Listen  to  the  woes  of  mortals,  and  how  I  raised  them  from  their 
former  infantile  condition  to  reason  and  intelligence.  ...  At 
first,  seeing,  they  saw  in  vain,  and,  hearing,  they  heard  not ;  but 
like  to  the  forms  of  dreams,  they  thoughtlessly,  for  long  ages,  con- 
fused everything,  knowing  nothing  of  brick-built  houses  exposed 
to  the  sun,  or  of  working  in  wood,  but  dwelling  underground,  like 
puny  ants,  in  the  sunless  depths  of  caves.  They  had  no  token  of 
winter,  of  flowery  spring,  or  of  fruitful  summer,  but  acted  alto- 
gether without  reflection,  until  I  at  last  showed  them  the  risings  of 
the  stars,  and  their  settings,  hard  to  discern.  Moreover,  I  discovered 
for  them  number,  the  highest  of  artifices,  and  the  combinations  of 
letters,  the  muse-mothered  instrument  for  the  recording  of  all 
things.  And  I  first  bound  great  beasts  to  yokes,  making  them  sub- 
mit to  collars  and  to  carrying  (human)  bodies,  so  that  they  might  be 
bearers  of  men's  greatest  burdens.  And  I  brought  horses  under  the 
chariot-rein — a  monument  to  superfluous  luxury.  And  none  other 
than  I  invented  the  sea-wandering,  canvas-winged  vehicles  of 
sailors.  .  .  .  Greatest  (discovery)  of  all,  if  anyone  fell  sick, 
there  was  no  remedy  in  the  form  of  either  food  or  ointment  or 
drink ;  but  they  pined  away  for  lack  of  medicines,  until  I  showed 
them  mixtures  of  soothing  remedies,  whereby  they  ward  off  all  dis- 
eases. Many  forms  of  divination  too  I  arranged,  and  I  was  the 
first  to  distinguish  among  dreams  those  destined  to  become  a  wak- 
ing vision,  and  expounded  to  them  mysterious  sounds.  Omens  on 
journeys,  and  the  flight  of  crooked-taloned  birds  I  clearly  defined, 
showing  which  are  lucky  in  their  nature,  and  which  unlucky,  what 
are  the  habits  of  each,  and  what  their  mutual  hates,  loves,  and  con- 
claves ;  moreover  the  smoothness  of  entrails  and  the  color  they 
must  have  to  be  pleasing  to  the  gods,  and  the  manifold  lucky  forms 
of  the  gall-bladder.  And  having  roasted  limbs  wrapt  in  fat  and  the 

24 


BARBARIAN   EDUCATION  25 

long  chine,  I  guided  men  to  a  mysterious  art.  And  I  gave  sight  to 
the  flame-symbols  that  formerly  were  blind.  So  much  for  things 
above  ground.  And  as  to  the  human  aids  hidden  underground — 
brass,  iron,  silver,  gold — who  would  claim  to  have  discovered  them 
before  me  ?  No  one,  I  am  sure,  who  did  not  wish  to  babble  in  vain. 
In  one  brief  saw,  learn  the  whole  at  once  :  All  human  arts  are  from 
Prometheus. — JESCHYLUS,  Prometheus  Bound,  11.  450  seq. 

The  principal  criteria  of  classification  (of  grades  of  culture)  are 
the  absence  or  presence,  high  or  low  development,  of  the  industrial 
arts,  especially  metal-working,  manufacture  of  implements  and  ves- 
sels, agriculture,  architecture,  etc.,  the  extent  of  scientific  knowl- 
edge, the  definiteness  of  moral  principles,  the  condition  of  religious 
belief  and  ceremony,  the  degree  of  social  and  political  organiza- 
tion, and  so  forth. — TTLOR,  Primitive  Culture,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  27  seq. 

Human  culture  advances  in  proportion  as  men  hus- 
band their  powers  by  the  use  of  implements,  and  by 
union  for  mutual  help.  Such  husbandry  demands  ever 
higher  and  higher  education. 

The  barbarian,  as  distinguished  from  the  savage, 
stage  of  culture,  begins  at  the  point  where  men  learn  to 
control  natural  forces — fire,  water,  wind — and  to  apply 
them  directly  to  the  satisfaction  of  their  own  desires. 
So  long,  of  course,  as  these  forces  were  regarded  as 
governed  by  essences  susceptible  of  influence  through 
magical  rites,  so  long  they  eluded  man;  and  it  required 
a  certain  impiety,  that  is,  an  advance  from  the  religious 
to  the  scientific  attitude,  to  enable  him  to  apply  them 
fearlessly  to  his  own  uses.  How  such  advance  was  at 
first  regarded  we  learn  from  such  stories  as  those  of 
Cain  and  Abel,*  Prometheus,  f  etc. 

*  See  Lenormant,  The  Beginnings  of  History,  Chap.  IV.  ("The 
Fratricide  and  the  Foundation  of  the  First  City  "). 

t  On  the  origin  and  meaning  of  this  world-myth  see  Kuhn,  Die  Herdb- 
kunft  des  Feuers.  Prometheus  does  not  come  from  Pramantha,  as  he 
supposes. 


26  THE   HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

The  great  event  which  carried  men  over  from  sav- 
agery to  barbarism  was  what  we  may  call  the  desecration 
of  fire — the  stealing  of  it  from  heaven,  as  the  Greeks 
said.  Through  this  men  were  enabled  to  do  three 
things:  (1)  to  cook  their  food,  (2)  to  smelt  metals  and 
shape  tools  of  them,  (3)  with  these  tools  to  engage  in 
many  arts  previously  impossible — to  quarry  and  dress 
stone,  and  with  it  to  build  houses  and  towns;*  to  turn 
up  the  soil  and  engage  in  agriculture;  to  improve  their 
weapons  of  offence  and  defence;  or,  in  one  word,  they 
were  enabled  to  pass  from  nomadic  to  settled  life.  The 
new  arts  called  for  a  division  of  labor  unknown  before, 
and  for  a  new  education.  Thus  men  came  to  be  divided 
into  trades  or  gilds,  each  of  which  gave  special  instruc- 
tion in  its  own  art.  The  earliest  form  of  conscious  in- 
struction was  gild-instruction,  of  which  apprenticeship 
is  a  modern  survival. 

If  in  savagery  human  desire  was  articulated  into  but 
few  needs,  and  these  capable  of  direct  satisfaction,  in 
barbarism  this  articulation  was  enormously  increased, 
and  life  became  greatly  complicated.  There  now  super- 
venes division  of  labor,  which  weakens  the  blood-tie  by 
bringing  into  close  relations  persons  having  a  common 
occupation,  and  by  establishing  a  professional  tie,  to 
which  is  soon  added  a  local  one.  Miners,  smiths,  car- 
penters, etc.,  form  associations  and  dwell  in  the  same 
localities.  In  agricultural  districts  the  very  soil  forms 
a  social  bond.  Among  the  earliest  social  distinctions  is 
that  between  those  that  occupy  themselves  with  the 

*  Town  (A-S.  t&n,  Ger.  Zaun)  means,  properly,  enclosure.  Towns 
were  originally  mere  places  of  refuge,  or  castles.  It  was  only  when  in- 
crease or  culture  brought  increase  of  danger  that  they  became  towns,  in 
our  sense. 


BARBARIAN  EDUCATION  27 

seen  and  those  that  occupy  themselves  with  the  unseen 
— between  laity  and  priests,  as  we  should  say.  Then 
comes,  in  the  laity,  the  distinction  between  those  who, 
by  their  labor,  supply  the  necessities  of  life,  and  those 
who  devote  themselves  to  defence,  or  between  the  in- 
dustrial and  military  classes.  Thus  there  arise  the 
three  social  castes — priests,  soldiers,  producers.  In  each 
of  these  again  there  are  subdivisions.  The  priests  di- 
vide into  propitiators  or  sacrificers*  and  soothsayers  or 
prophets;!  the  soldiers  into  privates  and  officers,  the 
chief  of  whom  is  king;  the  producers  into  as  many 
professions  as  there  are  useful  arts.  No  sooner  are  these 
three  classes  fairly  distinguished  than  there  springs  up 
between  them  a  rivalry  for  power.  In  the  ensuing  con- 
flict the  third  class  generally  succumbs,  sinking  into  a 
position  of  inferiority,  and  even  of  servility,  while  the 
conflict  goes  on  between  the  other  two.  Three  results 
are  possible.  The  victory  may  rest  either  (1)  with  the 
priests,  who  will  rule  by  superstitious  fear,  as  in  India,! 
or  (2)  with  the  soldiers,  who  will  rule  by  force,  as  in 
Assyria,§  or  (3)  with  the  two  combined,  as  in  Egypt.  || 
Each  class  now  receives  a  distinct  education,  suited  to 
its  functions,  and  always  through  gilds.  As  yet  there 
is  no  education  for  manhood  or  citizenship.  Man, 
being  still  a  means,  a  mere  limb,  of  the  social  body, 


*  Sacrifice,  from  being  a  tribal  meal,  intended  to  strengthen  the  blood- 
tie,  gradually  becomes  a  means  of  satisfying  or  propitiating  the  invisible 
members  of  the  tribe,  and,  later  on,  of  other  demons  and  gods.  See  p.  21, 
note,  and  cf .  Robertson  Smith,  Relig.  of  the  Semites,  pp.  196  seq. ;  David- 
son, Education  of  the  Greek  People,  p.  33. 

t  See  Wellhausen,  Reste  arab.  Heidenthums,  pp.  128  seq. 

%  See  Frazer,  Lit.  Hist,  of  India,  pp.  148-69. 

§  See  Rawlinson,  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  241  seq. 

|  See  Sayce,  Egypt  of  the  Hebrews,  pp.  53  seq. 


28  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

is  educated  for  subordination  and  function,  not  for 
freedom. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  result  of  the  division  of 
society  into  professional  castes  is  the  rise  of  a  leisured 
class — the  priests,  who,  as  mediators  of  the  unseen,  are 
the  founders  of  all  the  "  liberal "  arts  and  sciences.  As 
their  power  is  due  mainly  to  their  success  in  convincing 
the  other  classes  of  the  influence  of  the  unseen  upon 
human  affairs,  they  are  compelled,  with  a  view  to  fore- 
casting the  future,  to  observe  the  course  of  these  and 
to  keep  a  record  of  their  past  experiences.  Thus  they 
come  to  study  astronomy  and  meteorology,  and  to  in- 
vent writing.  Having  discovered  the  influence  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  upon  the  seasons,  they  often  ex- 
tend this  influence  to  other  things,  and  so  give  rise  to 
the  pseudo-science  of  astrology.  Nevertheless,  with 
recorded  observation  the  basis  of  science  is  laid. 

Next  to  the  discovery  of  fire,  the  invention  of  writing 
was  the  most  important  event  in  barbarian  culture. 
The  one  made  the  arts,  the  other  the  sciences,  possible. 
At  first,  all  writing  was  pictorial,  representing,  not 
sounds,  but  things.  It  was  by  a  very  slow  process,  last- 
ing for  thousands  of  years,  that  it  became  phonetic. 
Picture-writing,  being  necessarily  cumbersome  and,  at 
best,  requiring  an  interpreter,  called  into  existence 
gilds  of  professional  scribes — Schriftgelehrte,  as  the 
Germans  say — who  not  only  wrote,  but  likewise  kept 
alive  the  meaning  of  old  writings.  These  gilds,  which 
were  closely  connected  with  the  priesthood,  kept  records, 
on  stone  or  burnt  clay,*  not  only  of  astronomical  and 

*  On  stone  (later  on  papyrus)  in  Egypt,  on  clay  in  the  nations  of  the 
Euphrates  Valley.  On  the  earliest  writing  see  Pr.  Delitzsch,  Die  Ent- 
stehung  des  aeltesten  Schriftsystems. 


BAKBARIAN   EDUCATION  29 

meteorological,  but  also  of  historical,  occurrences,  and, 
after  a  time,  began  to  write  down  incantations,  prayers, 
laws,  and  poems.  All  such  records  were  carefully  pre- 
served in  libraries  connected  with  the  temples,  and  were 
read  by  the  scribes  on  solemn  occasions.*  Reading  was 
by  no  means  yet  a  popular  accomplishment.  Thus  it 
came  to  pass  that  the  priests  were  the  depositaries  of 
all  learning,  and  the  temples  the  schools,  f  It  naturally 
followed  that  all  education  was  theological,  concerning 
itself  with  the  essences  or  spirits  underlying  phenomena. 
This  involved  a  serious  drawback,  the  cause  of  much 
superstition.  The  barbarian  mind  was  not  content  with 
defining  the  essences  by  their  known  acts,  but  endowed 
them  with  all  sorts  of  human  attributes,  passions, 
capricious  will,  etc.,  whereby  they  were  turned  into 
arbitrary  beings,  requiring  to  be  flattered  and  propiti- 
ated. \  This  may  be  said  to  be  the  distinguishing  mark 
of  barbarian  culture,  which,  however,  it  long  survived. 
Several  ancient  nations  may  be  taken  as  representing 
barbarian  culture.  We  shall  confine  ourselves  to  six: 
(1)  Sumir  and  Akkad,  (2)  Egypt,  (3)  China,  (4)  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria,  (5)  India,  (6)  Media  and  Persia. 
Modern  ethnologists  and  philologists  divide  the  peoples 
that  have  risen  above  savagery  into  three  families:  (1) 
the  Turanian,  (2)  the  Semitic,  (3)  the  Aryan,  which 
appeared  upon  the  stage  of  history  successively  in  this 
order.§  Adopting  this  division,  we  may  say  that  Sumir, 

*  See  2  Kings  XXII. ,  XXIII.  ;  Nehemiah  VIII. 

t  In  Muslim  lands,  even  at  the  present  day,  schools  and  universities 
are  nearly  always  in  mosques.  Cf.  Matth.  XXVI.  55 ;  Acts  V.  25, 
etc. 

t  See  the  prayer  of  Chrysea,  Homer,  Iliad.,  I.,  37-43,  and  mark  its  mer- 
cenary implications. 

§  See  Max  Mttller,  Lect.  on  the  Science  of  Language,  First  Ser. 


30  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

/ 

Akkad,  Egypt,*  and  China  are  Turanian;  Babylonia 
and  Assyria,  Semitic;  and  India,  Media,  and  Persia, 
Aryan.  These  three  families  on  the  whole  represent 
three  different  stages  of  culture  within  barbarism  itself. 
So  far  as  we  know,  the  Turanians  were  the  founders  of 
^barbarian  culture,  the  first  astronomers,  the  inventors 
of  writing. 

(A)  ANCIENT  TURANIAN  EDUCATION 

While  there  is  a  very  striking  similarity  between  all 
tribes  and  races  at  the  savage  stage  of  culture,  there  is 
a  growing  differentiation  as  we  progress  in  the  barbarian 
stage.  Nevertheless,  in  all  the  forms  of  Turanian  cult- 
ure there  are  many  notable  resemblances.  Most  re- 
markable is  the  fact  that  it  seems  to  be  already  old, 
before  we  know  anything  about  it.  Alike  in  Akkad, 
Egypt,  and  Etruria,  men  seem  to  be  earnest,  gloomy, 
reflective,  weary  of  this  life,  and  strongly  inclined  to 
brood  on  another — a  sure  sign  of  decadence.  Their 
abodes,  or  rather  their  places  of  refuge,  remind  us  of 
caves,  being  towers  built  of  masses  of  brick  or  huge 
blocks  of  undressed  stone.  They  worship  in  caves 
mostly;  their  temples  are  tombs,  and  their  tombs  tem- 
ples. Their  religion  is  marked  by  mystery  and  gloom; 
their  worship  by  bloody  rites,  magic,  and  incantation. 
Their  gods  are  deities  of  the  dark,  rather  than  of  the 
light,  inspiring  fear,  rather  than  joy.  They  honor 

*The  ethnology  of  the  Egyptians  is  ill-understood,  but  at  present  they 
may  conveniently  be  classed  as  Turanians.  It  is  probable  that  Hittite 
and  Etruscan  (Tyrrhenian,  Pelasgian)  culture  was  Turanian,  but  the 
subject  is  obscure.  I  am  aware  that  this  view  of  the  three  races  meets 
opposition  in  many  respectable  quarters ;  but  I  state  what  seems  to  me 
the  truth. 


BAKBARIAN   EDUCATION  31 

women,  lay  great  stress  on  the  family  bond,  and  be- 
lieve in  its  continuance  after  death.  Hence  they  build 
sumptuous  and  permanent  abodes  for  the  departed,  and 
hold  frequent  and  familiar  converse  with  them.  They 
have  a  firm  belief  in  immortal  ghosts,  and  are  strongly 
inclined  to  ancestor-worship.  They  practise  agriculture, 
dig  canals,  and  pursue  several  of  the  useful  arts.  They 
use  fire,  and  smelt  and  shape  several  of  the  metals, 
chiefly  copper,  gold,  and  silver.  They  discover  bronze, 
and  make  such  extensive  use  of  it  that  the  barbarian 
age  has  sometimes  been  called  the  bronze  age.  They 
study  astronomy  and  learn  to  determine  roughly  the 
length  of  the  year.  They  use  magical  rites  and  incan- 
tations to  drive  away  disease,  which  they  suppose  to  be 
due  to  evil  spirits.  Even  when  they  use  medicine,  it  is 
on  account  of  its  supposed  magical  virtues.  Their  form 
of  government  is  theocratic,  exercised  through  priests 
and  kings,  the  latter  often  claiming  divine  descent. 
Education  for  all  professions  is  imparted  through  gilds, 
and  there  is  none  other — no  education  for  freedom  or 
manhood. 

To  the  Turanians  are  due  the  first  organization  of  a 
priestly,  scholarly  class,  holding  itself  aloof  from  all 
other  classes,  and  also  the  compilation  of  a  religious 
literature,  with  myths — creation,  fall  (?),  flood,  etc. — 
laws,  and  liturgy.  The  distinctions,  cleric  and  lay, 
natural  and  supernatural,  clean  and  unclean,  sacred  and 
profane,  are  due  to  them.  All  organized  religious  sys- 
tems can,  I  believe,  be  traced  back  to  them.*  To  them 

*  Even  Abraham  is  said  to  have  come  from  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,"  and 
I  think  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Hebrew  Yahweh  was  originally 
a  Turanian  deity,  perhaps  Ea.  See  Margoliouth,  in  the  Contemporary 
Review^  Oct.,  1878  (The  Earliest,  Relig.  of  the  Anc.  Hebrews). 


32  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

also  must  be  attributed  the  first  clear  assertion  of  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  and  the  earliest  sense  of  sin. 
-'->.  The  latter  has  its  origin  in  a  dread  of  avenging  spirits 
and  in  a  tendency  to  brooding  self-criticism,  a  char- 
acteristic of  the  race.  Finally  to  the  Turanians  we  owe 
the  week  and  the  Sabbath. 

(1)  TSumir  and  ATckad  (Chaldcea) 

The  four  great  hieroglyphic  systems — Egyptian,  Cuneiform,  Hit- 
tite,  and  Chinese — sprang  undoubtedly  from  rude  picture-writings, 
probably  first  known  in  Asia,  and  which  may  have  been  the  one 
common  original  of  them  all. — CONDER,  The  Hittites  and  their 
Language,  p.  136. 

Egypt  and  Babylon  [Sumir  and  Akkad]  led  the  way  and  acted  as 
the  pioneers  of  mankind  in  the  various  untrodden  fields  of  art, 
literature,  and  science.  Alphabetic  writing,  astronomy,  history, 
chronology,  architecture,  plastic  art,  sculpture,  navigation,  agricult- 
ure, textile  industry  seem,  all  of  them,  to  have  had  their  origin  in 
one  or  other  of  these  two  countries. — BAWLINSON,  Ancient  Mon- 
archies, Vol.  I.,  p.  60. 

The  oldest  barbarian  culture  seems  to  have  arisen 
among  certain  Turanian  or  Mongol  tribes  in  the  valley 
of  the  Euphrates.  Whence  these  came  we  know  not 
— probably  from  the  northeast;  but  at  least  ten  thou- 
sand years  ago  they  had  founded  two  kingdoms — Sumir 
to  the  south,  Akkad  to  the  north — and  worked  out  a 
culture  far  in  advance  of  savagery.  They  built  castles, 
followed  agriculture  and  the  useful  arts,  studied  astron- 
omy, and  invented  writing.  I  cannot  better  give  a 
notion  of  their  culture  than  by  translating  a  passage 
from  Professor  Delitzsch's  work,  already  referred  to:  * 

*  Die  Entstehung  det  aeltesten  Schrlftsyitems,  pp.  314  Beq. 


BARBARIAN   EDUCATION  33 

"  The  Sumirian  written  characters,"  he  says,  "  afford  us 
a  glimpse  into  the  state  of  culture  prevailing  among  the 
people  at  the  time  when  writing  was  invented.  The 
following  attempt  to  outline  the  culture  of  that  primeval 
period  is  based  exclusively  upon  those  characters  which 
must  be  assigned  to  the  primitive  stratum  of  the  Su- 
mirian system  of  writing.  Signs,  regarding  which  there 
is  any  possibility  of  suspicion  that  they  may  be  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin — such,  e.g.,  as  the  ideograms  for 
cedar  and  wine — and,  of  course,  all  groups  of  signs, 
with  a  very  few  well-weighed  exceptions,  have  been  ex- 
cluded on  principle. 

"The  region  occupied  by  the  people  who  invented 
writing  was  beyond  measure  fruitful.  The  vegetation 
of  the  soil,  which  was  highly  blessed  with  water  and 
sunshine,  and,  in  addition,  artificially  irrigated  by  a  close 
net  of  canals  and  rivulets,  as  well  as  by  other  means, 
was  the  most  luxuriant  conceivable.  The  date-palms 
were  overladen  with  fruit,  and  forests  of  gigantic  reeds 
covered  the  broad  marshes  on  the  seashore. 

"  Agriculture  and  cattle-raising  were  the  occupations 
of  the  inhabitants  in  time  of  peace.  With  the  help  of 
the  plough(?)  they  loosened  the  soil  for  the  reception 
of  the  seed,  and  rich  crops  sprang  from  the  bosom  of 
the  earth.  They  planted  garden-beds  and  gardens, 
while  on  the  meadows  grazed  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  • 
goats,  tended  by  herdsmen,  crook  in  hand,  and  at  night 
shut  up  within  hurdles  in  the  open  field.  In  the  Su- 
mirian family  the  females  were  subordinate  to  the 
males.  The  wife  was  regarded  mainly  as  the  bearer  of 
children,  and  the  offspring  was  uncommonly  numerous. 
The  father  was  the  guardian  of  the  house,  and  was 
3 


34  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

supported  by  his  sons,  who  contributed  to  the  protec- 
tion of  the  family,  especially  of  the  younger  members 
and,  above  all,  of  their  sisters.  The  father-in-law  seems 
to  have  enjoyed  special  distinction.  Bread  and  fruit, 
milk  and  butter,  water  and  intoxicating  date-wine  fur- 
nished food  and  drink.  Besides  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats, 
they  had,  as  domestic  animals,  dogs  and  asses.  They 
hunted  for  birds  and  fish  with  nets,  and  took  par- 
ticular delight  in  keeping  the  former  in  cages.  Of  wild 
animals  they  knew  the  buffalo.  There  were  snakes,  too; 
but  the  great  drawback  to  the  life  of  these  primitive 
settlers  was  the  immense  number  of  vermin.  For 
clothing  they  used  chiefly  the  skins  of  animals,  making 
use  of  the  precious  stones,  found  in  their  own  country 
and  the  neighboring  districts,  for  all  sorts  of  adornment. 
"  They  dwelt  originally  in  huts  made  of  reeds,  but 
at  a  very  early  date  they  built  themselves  houses  of 
bricks,  for  which  the  alluvial  soil  of  Babylonia  offered 
an  inexhaustible  source  of  material,  combining  these 
into  a  firm  structure  by  means  of  asphalt,  which  is  also 
found  in  large  quantities  on  the  spot.  Their  dwellings, 
which  were  meant  chiefly  as  a  protection  against  the 
sun's  rays,  were  roofed  with  boards  and  surrounded  by 
spacious,  enclosed  courts.  The  entrance  could  be  closed 
with  folding-doors  which  might  be  bolted  and  barred 
with  wooden  pegs.  A  clump  of  houses,  that  is,  a  larger 
settlement,  possessing,  of  course,  a  cistern,  was  sur- 
rounded with  a  wall,  intended  for  protection  against 
hostile  intrusion.  For  the  use  of  carts  and  wagons, 
which  were  drawn  by  beasts  of  burden,  there  were 
special  paths  or  roads.  The  dead  were  buried.  The 
burial-place,  which  was  the  entrance  to  the  'land 


BARBARIAN   EDUCATION  35 

whence  no  traveller  returns/  was  looked  upon  as  the 
'  dark  abode/  or  the  '  great  city/  of  which  all  men  are 
destined  one  day  to  be  inhabitants. 

"At  the  head  of  one  or  more  settlements  stood  a 
'  great  man '  (lu-gal),  or  king,  who,  as  became  his  dig- 
nity, resided  in  a  '  great  house '  (e-gal),  or  palace.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  settlement  were  his  instruments  or 
subjects,  and  their  union  formed  the  people.  The  king 
acted  as  judge,  and  in  war  as  general.  Armed  with 
bows  and  arrows,  daggers  and  swords,  the  people  went 
out  to  war  against  their  enemies,  and  made  slaves  of 
their  captives,  both  male  and  female. 

"  The  appearance  of  the  new  moon  was  the  chief 
measure  of  time.  The  new  moon  marked  the  beginning, 
the  full  moon  the  middle,  of  the  month,  which  was 
reckoned  at  thirty  days,  while  the  waning  moon,  like  the 
setting  sun,  was  regarded  as  the  symbol  of  weakening, 
vanishing,  returning. 

"  Black  was  to  them  the  color  of  the  night;  white, 
that  of  the  breaking  dawn.  Yellow  and  green  seemed 
to  them  garish,  whereas  everything  dark,  for  example 
the  gray  of  the  clouds,  seemed  full,  saturated  color. 

"  The  starry  heaven  was  to  them  the  home  of  the 
gods,  at  whose  head  were  the  gods  of  heaven,  sun, 
and  moon,  and  in  relation  to  whom  man  was  nothing 
more  than  a  slave,  or  even  a  dog,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  worship,  in  the  deepest  reverence,  with  his  face  in  the 
dust.  A  special  house,  built  with  special  care  and  splen- 
dor, in  a  chamber  of  which,  protected  on  all  sides  from 
profane  gaze,  lay  the  statue  of  the  divinity,  was  set 
apart  as  the  place  of  worship.  Prayer  and  sacrifice  were 
regarded  as  peculiarly  pleasing  to  the  gods.  Such  a 


36  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

temple  had  its  foundation  exactly  facing  the  four  car- 
dinal points  of  the  compass — North  (the  '  straight '  di- 
rection), East,  South,  and  West,  and  surrounded  by  a  wall 
with  the  same  orientation.  This  custom  had  its  origin 
in  the  notion  that  the  earth,  which  formed  the  founda- 
tion of  the  celestial  palace,  had  sides  facing  the  four 
cardinal  points.  Besides  the  celestial  gods,  those  primi- 
tive settlers  on  the  Persian  Gulf  worshipped  sea  and 
water  gods,  chief  among  whom  was  the  goddess  Gur. 
Craven  superstition  also  was  in  full  blast;  on  the  steppe 
all  sorts  of  storm-demons  pursued  their  uncanny  prac- 
tices, and  even  the  manes  of  the  departed  could,  as 
ghosts,  bring  destruction.  Fire,  which  was  produced 
by  the  revolution  of  one  piece  of  wood  in  another,  was 
worshipped  as  the  special  helper  against  all  dark  hob- 
goblins, and  the  fire-god  was  looked  upon  as  the  subduer 
of  all  spells.  Even  the  priests,  besides  performing  the 
service  of  the  temple,  gave  attention  to  exorcism,  or 
the  overcoming  of  hostile  demonic  powers,  above  all  of 
diseases,  in  the  name  of  the  gods,  and  were  highly  re- 
spected as  magicians.  They  were  at  the  same  time  the 
bearers  of  the  higher  spiritual  culture.  Even  the  dis- 
covery of  writing,  as  the  very  sign  for  man  shows,  was 
the  work  of  the  priests." 

Here  we  have  an  excellent  picture  of  barbarian  cult- 
ure, with  its  improvements  and  its  limitations.  It  does 
not,  indeed,  show  us  how  education  was  imparted;  but 
it  does  show  us  the  results  of  education.  The  writer, 
further,  maintains  that  the  Sumiro-Akkadians  had  a 
special  gift  for  abstraction  and  combination,  for  nu- 
merical and  spatial  relations,  and  for  everything  mathe- 
matical, and  also  that,  when  inventing  writing,  they 


BARBARIAN   EDUCATION  37 

tried  rather  to  find  symbols  for  dust,  wind,  and  ab- 
stract ideas  than  to  make  pictures  of  fish  and  corn- 
ears.  This  would  tend  to  show  that  their  effort  was  to 
express  essences,  rather  than  things,  as,  indeed,  we 
might  have  supposed.  Things  need  no  symbols;  indeed, 
we  may  say  they  are  symbols. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  earliest  schools  in  the 
world  were  in  Sumir  and  Akkad.  With  the  invention 
of  writing  they  became  a  necessity.  They  were  con- 
ducted by  the  priests  and  attended  mainly,  if  not  wholly, 
by  members  of  the  priestly  class,  the  only  one  laying 
any  claim  to  learning.*  Under  barbarian  culture,  priest 
and  scholar  are  synonymous  terms.  When  schools  were 
once  established,  no  doubt  other  things  besides  writing 
soon  came  to  be  taught  in  them;  but  all  such  teaching, 
whether  of  history,  chronology,  mathematics,  astron- 
omy, medicine,  or  divination,  was  confined  to  the  priestly 
order.  Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  in  the  old  Turanian  I  v- 
States  of  Mesopotamia  the  distinction  between  cleric  and 
layman  was  first  clearly  drawn. 

(2)  Egypt 

When  the  early  inhabitants  of  Chaldaea  are  pronounced  to  have 
belonged  to  the  same  race  with  the  dwellers  on  the  Upper  Nile,  the 
question  naturally  arises,  which  were  the  primitive  people  and  which 
the  colonists  ? — RAWLINSON,  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  I.,  p.  64. 

The  new  facts  that  have  been  disinterred  from  the  grave  of  the 
past  furnish  a  striking  confirmation  of  Professor  Hommel's  theory, 
which  connects  the  culture  of  primitive  Egypt  with  that  of  primitive 
Chaldaea,  and  derives  the  language  of  the  Egyptians,  at  all  events 

*  The  same  was  true  during  the  Middle  Age,  which,  in  many  respects, 
reverted  to  barbarism.  Clerk-- cleric. 


38  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

in  part,  from  a  mixed  Babylonian  in  which  Semitic  and  Sumirian 
elements  alike  claimed  a  share. — SATCE,  Contemporary  Rev.,  Jan., 
1897,  p.  22. 

The  recorded  history  of  ancient  Egypt  goes  back  six 
or  seven  thousand  years,  and  implies  a  much  longer 
unrecorded  history.*  When  the  people  first  appears,  it 
has  already  passed  througli  the  village-community  and 
town  stages  of  culture,  and  has  assumed  the  form  of  a 
monarchy,  or,  rather,  of  two  monarchies — Upper  and 
Lower  Egypt.  This  fact  seems  largely  due  to  the 
necessity  for  regulating  the  Nile  throughout  its  whole 
known  course,  in  order  to  make  life  in  the  country  at 
all  possible.  Without  some  sort  of  association  among 
the  numerous  "nomes,"  such  regulation  would  have 
been  altogether  impossible.  But  though  Egypt  had  ad- 
vanced thus  far,  she  had  dropped  no  element  from  her 
past,  and  this  is  perhaps  the  strangest  and  most  in- 
structive thing  about  her.  Everywhere  we  find  the 
crudest  and  most  primitive  conceptions,  customs,  and 
institutions  co-existing  with  the  most"  advanced.  She 
worships  stocks  and  stones,  cats  and  oxen,  alongside  high 
conceptions  of  divinity. 

From  the  earliest  known  times  the  Egyptian  mon- 
archy has  the  three  social  classes — priests,  soldiers,  pro- 
ducers— well  defined.  The  government  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  first  two,  who  usually  play  into  each  other's 
hands.  The  king  is  the  embodiment  and  representative 
of  the  supreme  god,  and  rules  by  divine  right.  The 
useful  arts  are  well  advanced,  and  so  are  the  fine  arts — 

*In  some  respects  it  is  almost  altogether  a  history  of  decay.  The 
oldest  art  of  Egypt  is  the  best,  and  some  of  it  is  very  good.  It  steadily 
declines  till  the  country  falls  into  the  hands  of  Alexander  and  the  Greeks. 


BARBARIAN  EDUCATION  39 

architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  literature,  and  music, 
not  to  speak  of  working  in  the  precious  metals.  The 
mechanical  power  displayed  in  the  architecture  of  the 
early  pyramids  and  temples  is  truly  astonishing,  espe- 
cially when  we  remember  that  the  -huge  blocks  of  which 
they  are  constructed  were  often  transported  hundreds  of 
miles  by  water.  Nor  is  the  technical  skill  displayed  in 
much  of  the  early  jewelry  less  remarkable.  Astronomy 
was  carefully  studied,  but  had  not  the  religious  signifi- 
cance attached  to  it  in  the  Euphrates  Valley.  Writing 
goes  back  to  the  earliest  times,  and  its  development  can 
be  traced  all  the  way  from  a  pictorial  to  an  almost 
phonetic  condition.  Inscriptions  on  temples  and  tombs 
were  numerous,  and  books  were  written  on  many 
subjects — astronomy,  agriculture,  statesmanship,  ethics, 
medicine,  etc.;  while  literature,  in  the  narrower  sense, 
was  represented  by  numerous  poems  and  stories.  The 
"  Book  of  the  Dead,"  which  may  be  called  the  Bible  of 
the  Egyptians,  being  a  complete  guide  to  the  lower 
world,  existed  in  numerous  copies,  and  was  frequently 
buried  with  the  dead.  Papyrus  was  used  as  writing 
material,  and  libraries  of  papyrus-rolls  were  collected, 
especially  in  the  temples.  There  also  were  the  principal 
schools  for  scribes,  musicians,  architects,  mathema- 
ticians, and  astronomers.  Though  education  was  thus 
mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  priests,  yet  at  some  periods 
the  art  of  writing  was  common  among  the  laity. 

The  oldest  book  in  the  world  is  said  to  be  the  Moral 
Aphorisms  of  Ptah-hotep,  which  exerted  a  wide  and 
lasting  influence.  Its  morality  is  altogether  of  the  prac- 
tical or  prudential  sort,  like  that  of  the  Chinese.  In- 
deed, Egyptian  education,  as  a  whole,  was  practical  and 


40  THE  HISTOEY  OF  EDUCATION 

professional,  making  no  effort  to  develop  free  men,  and 
knowing  nothing  of  science  for  science'  sake,  or  virtue 
for  virtue's  sake.  Its  aim  was  to  enable  each  citizen,  by 
labor  and  by  a  harmless  life,  to  obtain  as  much  satisfac- 
tion as  possible  in  this  world,  and,  by  rites  and  cere- 
monies, to  insure  the  favor  of  the  gods,  and,  hence,  an 
easy  existence  in  the  next  world,  conceived  after  the 
fashion  of  this.  It  is  but  fair  to  say,  however,  that 
righteousness  weighed  as  much  as  sacrifice  with  the 
gods.  Believing  in  a  ghostly  immortality  and  an  ulti- 
mate resurrection,  the  Egyptians  fixed  their  thoughts 
largely  on  the  life  to  come,  and  were  more  concerned 
to  provide  for  it  than  for  the  present  one.  Hence, 
though  not  without  joy  and  even  mirth,  their  life  was 
earnest  and  prosaically  practical.  They  never  ascended 
to  any  lofty  ideals  or  philosophical  conceptions,  for 
which  reason  their  art,  even  at  its  best,  never  attained 
to  beauty,  but  remained  on  the  level  of  symbolism.  It 
everywhere  expresses  servitude,  and  not  freedom.  It 
overpowers  by  its  mass,  does  not  attract  by  its  gracious- 
ness.  It  is  not  "  its  own  excuse  for  being." 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  Egypt,  as  in  Turanian 
countries  generally,  women  were  permitted  to  enjoy  the 
benefits  of  education,  and  to  occupy  a  free  and  honorable 
position  in  society  and  state.  They  looked  forward  to 
immortality,  and  their  graves  were  often  adorned  with 
great  sumptuousness.  To  this  fact  and  to  the  long 
isolation  of  Egypt  were  largely  due  the  slow  progress 
and  long  endurance  of  her  institutions.  Women  and 
isolation  make  nations  conservative.  This  isolation  it- 
self was  largely  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Egyptians 
never  developed  the  science  of  navigation  beyond  what 


BAEBARIAN   EDUCATION  41 

was  necessary  for  sailing  small  boats  on  the  Nile.  To 
their  superstitious  minds  the  sea  had  weird  terrors 
which  they  had  not  the  courage  to  brave.  Indeed,  the 
science  of  navigation  hardly  enters  into  barbarian 
culture. 

(3)  China 

What  heaven  has  conferred  is  called  the  nature ;  an  accordance 
with  this  nature  is  called  the  path  of  duty ;  the  regulation  of  this 
path  is  called  instruction. — CONFUCIUS,  Doctrine  of  the  Mean. 

Man's  commencement  in  life  is  such  that  his  nature  is  radically 
good. 

But  as  to  nature,  men  are  mutually  near  each  other,  whilst  in 
practice  they  are  mutually  far  apart. — Chinese  Primer,  first  sen- 
tences. 

In  China,  Turanian  culture  has  continued  to  exist 
down  to  the  present  day;  and  it  is  perhaps  there  that 
we  can  best  see  its  nature  and  limitations.  Whether  or ! 
not  this  culture  is  connected  with  that  of  the  Sumiro- 
Akkadians,  it  has  many  of  the  same  features  as  the  lat- 
ter, and,  indeed,  looks  like  a  natural  development  of  it, 
being  visibly  inferior  to  both  Semitism  and  Aryanism. 
It  is  essentially  of  the  family  type,  and,  indeed,  the 
family  is  its  highest  ideal  and  the  object  of  its  special 
reverence.  Its  religion  is  animistic,  being  a  worship  of 
ancestors  and  elemental  powers,  leading  to  a  stagnant, 
prosaic,  mechanical,  prudential  ethics.  The  language 
of  the  Chinese  has  remained  at  the  isolating  or  juxta- 
positive  stage,  consisting  of  monosyllables,  not  out- 
wardly connected;  their  writing  has  not  risen  above  the 
pictorial  or  ideographic  condition;  their  literature  is 
dry,  formal,  uninspired,  and  almost  childish.  In  a 


42  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

word,  we  have  in  China  a  low  type  of  culture  developed 
to  its  highest  possibilities,  and  seemingly  incapable, 
from  long  lack  of  foreign  contact,  of  changing  into  a 
higher.  China  is  one  great  family,  whose  father  is  the 
emperor,  exercising,  in  education  and  government, 
parental  discipline. 

As  the  fully-evolved  form  of  a  special  type,  the 
Chinese  are  naturally  conservative  in  the  highest  de- 
gree. Their  culture,  which  dates  back  no  one  knows 
how  long — four  thousand  years  at  least — has  changed 
but  slowly  in  the  course  of  the  ages.  Dynasty  has  fol- 
lowed dynasty;  but  the  people  remain  the  same,  in  be- 
liefs and  in  ideals,  praying  daily,  not  "  Thy  kingdom 
come,"  but  "  Thy  kingdom  abide."  Their  highest  am- 
bition being  to  remain  what  they  are,  their  attention  is 
naturally  directed  to  the  past,  and  to  the  means  of 
preserving  it.  Their  education,  therefore,  is  confined  to 
the  study  of  their  ancient  books,  and  the  imparting  of 
the  reverential  type  of  manners  which  these  inculcate. 

)  Every  attempt  at  originality  of  thought,  or  freedom  of 
action,  is  strictly  prohibited,  as  impious  and  un-Chinese, 
and  every  effort  made  to  model  the  future  on  the  past. 
We  need  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  to  find  that  their 
education  consists  in  thoughtlessly  committing  to  mem- 
ory ancient  texts  and  writing  essays  and  poems  on  them, 
in  accordance  with  prescribed  models.  Those  scholars 
who  succeed  best  in  this  receive  the  highest  rewards — 
state  offices  and  patents  of  nobility.  Indeed,  education 

j  is  the  path  to  all  public  preferment  in  China. 

In  spite  of  this,  the  Chinese  cannot  be  said  to  have 
any  course  of  public  education.  They  obtain  their  re- 
sults by  a  system  of  government  examinations  more 


BARBABIAN  EDUCATION  43 

elaborate  than  any  that  exists  elsewhere.  This  system, 
which  dates  from  very  ancient  times,  assumed  its  pres- 
ent form  about  twelve  hundred  years  ago,  and  is  corre- 
lated with  the  civil  divisions  of  the  country.  At  the 
head  of  it  is  the  Han-lin,  or  Academy  of  Pekin.  The 
lowest  or  preliminary  examinations  are  held  in  the 
counties.  Those  who  pass  these  are  allowed  to  try  a 
higher  examination,  held  in  the  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment. The  successful  candidates  in  this  obtain  a  degree 
equivalent  to  our  B.A.,  and  take  their  first  step  in  the 
ranks  of  the  nobility.  Later  on,  these  bachelors  under- 
go an  examination,  by  commissioners  from  Pekin,  in 
the  capital  of  the  province,  and,  if  they  pass  it,  take  a 
degree  corresponding  to  our  M.A.,  at  the  same  time 
rising  a  step  in  the  ranks  of  the  nobility.  They  are  also 
entitled  to  present  themselves  for  the  fourth,  and  last, 
examination,  which  is  conducted  by  the  Han-lin,  at 
Pekin,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and  lasts  for  thirteen 
days.  Those  who  pass  it  take  a  doctor's  degree,  the 
candidates  who  head  the  list  receiving  special  distinction 
from  the  emperor.  The  doctors  have  a  right  to  public 
office  at  once,  and,  if  they  conduct  themselves  worthily 
therein,  may  rise  to  the  highest  dignities  of  the  empire.* 
Civil-service  reformers  who  desire  to  see  all  public 
offices  filled  by  competition  will  find  their  ideal  realized 
in  China.  Should  they  proceed  to  estimate  its  value, 
however,  by  the  present  decrepit  condition  of  the  coun- 
try, they  would  hardly  arrive  at  fair  conclusions,  and 
that  for  several  reasons:  (1)  The  examinations  are  often 
unfairly  conducted,  and  a  good  deal  of  bribery  takes 
place.  (2)  No  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  an  edu- 

*  Laurie,  Hist.  Survey  of  Pre-Christian  Education,  pp.  135-41. 


44  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

cation  which,  like  the  Chinese,  stunts  the  intelligence 
and  fossilizes  the  imagination,  to  any  modern  system 
which  seeks  to  develop  all  the  faculties.  (3)  No  con- 
clusion can  be  drawn  from  a  people  that  refuses  to 
progress  to  peoples  whose  chief  aim  is  progress.  (4) 
The  present  condition  of  China  is  due,  not  merely  to 
her  stagnant  life,  but  also  to  recent  contact  with  the 
outer  world  and  the  influx  of  foreign  ideas,  conditions 
for  which  she  was  altogether  unprepared.* 

The  effect  of  China's  attempt  to  arrest  progress  and 
make  the  present  the  slave  of  the  past  has  been  to  weave 
a  superficial  order  over  a  deep  underlying  chaos.  China 
reminds  one  of  Polonius,  ready  on  all  occasions  to  pour 
forth  a  flood  of  unexceptionable  moral  aphorisms,  while 
remaining  at  bottom  profoundly  immoral  and  hypo- 
critical, full  of  vanity,  servility,  and  low  cunning.  She 
has  never  produced  a  philosophy,  or  even  a  consistent 
theology,  but  has  remained  on  the  level  of  prudential 
reflection.  Her  art  never  rises  above  grotesqueness,  or, 
at  best,  sensuous  prettiness.  Much  of  the  technique  is 
exquisite,  but  it  expresses  nothing,  and  so  remains  mere 
virtuosity.  Her  religion  is  almost  of  the  savage  type, 
and  even  her  ethics,  upon  which  she  specially  prides 
herself,  never  rises  above  the  level  of  prudence  and 
propriety.  This  is  true  even  of  the  ethics  of  Confucius 
(541-478  B.C.),  who  may  be  called  the  Chinese  Messiah, 
and  who  is  worshipped  almost  as  a  god.  It  is  true  that 
besides  the  national  religion  there  are  two  others  widely 
current  in  the  country — (1)  Taoism,  a  kind  of  nature- 
mysticism,  which  readily  degenerates  into  spiritism, 
magic,  and  shamanism;  (2)  Buddhism  (imported  about 

*  See  Boulger,  History  of  China,  VoL  HI. 


BAEBAEIAN   EDUCATION  45 

A.D.  76),  which  has  become  a  degraded  idolatry,  coupled 
with  doctrines  of  metempsychosis  and  nirvana;  but 
neither  has  sufficed  to  raise  the  Chinese  above  the  Tu- 
ranian level.  It  is  characteristic  enough  that  they  have 
never  risen  to  any  clear  notions  of  God,  Freedom,  or 
Immortality.  They  continually  translate  themselves 
back  into  nature,  instead  of  translating  nature  forward 
into  themselves,  just  as  many  of  our  modern  evolution- 
ists do. 

(B)  ANCIENT  SEMITIC  EDUCATION 

The  Semitic  languages  regard  thinking  as  essentially  as  inner 
speaking  or  as  a  separating.  .  .  .  The  characteristic  fact  re- 
mains that  in  thinking  the  Semite  separates,  the  Indogerman 
[Aryan]  combines. — GOSCHE,  Ghazz&li's  Leben  u.  Werke,  pp. 
309  seq. 

In  spite  of  all  differences  in  language,  character,  manners,  and 
mode  of  life  among  the  various  branches  of  the  Semitic  race,  they 
all  manifest  a  considerable  family  likeness,  which  shows  itself  in 
the  uniformity  and  poverty  of  their  languages,  in  the  mere  co-or- 
dination and  juxtaposition  of  their  sentences ;  t'.e.,  in  the  inborn 
lack  of  philosophic  thought,  in  their  scanty  capacity  for  truly  aes- 
thetic art-production,  in  their  inability  to  develop  a  free  political 
life.  These  peculiarities  have  their  root  in  a  strongly  marked  sub- 
jectivism, in  the  depths  of  a  rich  emotional  nature,  which  forms 
the  centre  of  Semitic  spiritual  life ;  in  stern,  restlessly  active  cour- 
age, in  practical  enterprise  as  well  as  in  egoism,  intolerance,  and  a 
claim  to  exclusive  privilege,  rising  to  fanaticism.  In  the  Semitic 
spirit  there  appear  two  opposite  elements,  an  irresistible  tendency 
to  self-assertion  .  .  .  and  the  most  intense  subjectivity,  coupled 
with  a  wealth  of  dreamy  emotionality,  which  often  flames  up  into 
the  loftiest  enthusiasm,  and  is  the  cause  which  has  enabled  the 
Cemitic  race  to  produce  the  three  religions  of  spiritual  monotheism 
— the  Hebrew,  the  Christian,  and  the  Muslim. — SCHMIDT,  Gesch. 
der  Paedagogik,  I4,  pp.  250  seq. 


46  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

In  remote  ages  the  Semites  were  nomads,  ranging 
probably  in  the  Arabian  desert,  where  many  of  them 
are  still  to  be  found.  They  were  a  rude,  savage,  active 
people,  delighting  in  animal  freedom  and  leading  a  ro- 
bust, warlike  life,  fearing  neither  God  nor  man.  Living 
in  a  region  where  nature  and  man  are  alike  capricious, 
and  never  knowing  when  they  might  be  in  danger  from 
either,  they  learned  not  to  worry  about  the  morrow,  not 
to  calculate  the  future,  but  to  be  on  the  alert  against 
the  possibilities  of  to-day.  They  were  interested  in  the 
present,  and  cared  little  about  past  or  future.  They 
1  lived  in  tents,  by  means  of  their  flocks  and  herds,  and 
i  these  were  almost  their  sole  possessions.  Of  agriculture, 
architecture,  and  the  useful  arts  they  knew  almost  noth- 
I  ing.  Their  religion  was  animism,  much  concerned  with 
ginn  and  other  weird  beings  whom  they  sought  to  pro- 
pitiate.* Occupied  fully  with  this  life,  they  formed  no 
conceptions  or  hopes  with  regard  to  another.  They 
guided  their  nightly  journeys  by  the  stars,  and  sang 
short  lyrics  on  love  and  heroic  deeds.  They  regarded 
women  as  merely  slaves,  or  instruments  of  passion. 
Their  language  and  literature  reveal  their  character. 
The  Semite  expresses  himself  in  abrupt,  disconnected 
sentences,  each  corresponding  to  a  single  intuition.  His 
language  contains  nothing  that  implies  a  synthetic  ef- 
fort of  intelligence.  It  has  no  compound  words,  few 
subordinating  conjunctions,  few  relatives,  and,  strictly 
speaking,  no  tenses.  It  is  the  language  of  men  living 
alert  in  the  present. 
From  time  to  time,  for  thousands  of  years,  the  Semites 

*See  Tylor,  Primitive   Culture,   Vol.  L,  417-VoL    II. ,  p.   361,   and 
Robertson  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  pp.  113  seq. 


BARBARIAN   EDUCATION  47 

sent  out  swarms,  which  settled  in  lands  already  occu- 
pied by  Turanian  culture — Babylonia,  Assyria,*  Egypt,f 
Canaan,  Greece,  Italy.  Adopting  this  somewhat  decrepit 
and  gloomy  culture,  they  imparted  new  vigor  to  it,  freed 
it  from  much  of  its  gloom,  and  combined  it  with  their 
own  restless  and  warlike  tendencies,  thus  developing 
into  settled  nations  of  great  power,  whose  monuments 
in  Babylonia,  Assyria,  and  other  lands  still  surprise  us. 
Through  a  combination  of  Sumiro-Akkadian  religious 
conceptions  and  practices,  they  became  the  religious 
people  of  the  world  par  excellence,  looking  for  all  im- 
portant truth  to  divine  revelation,  and  not  to  scientific 
investigation  or  reflection.  Their  strongly  theological 
tendency  pushed  them  on  to  monotheism,  and  that  in 
two  forms.  They  either  merged  their  various  gods  into 
one,  thus  arriving  at  a  widely  diffused  being  of  many 
and  various  attributes,  or  else  they  elevated  one  god  to 
supreme  rank,  and  made  all  the  others  his  sons  or  angels. 
In  the  one  case  they  paved  the  way  for  pantheism  and 
mysticism;  in  the  other,  for  monotheism  proper  and  a 
moral  law.  The  Babylonians  (like  the  Egyptians)  took 
the  former  course,  while  the  Assyrians  with  their  Asur, 
and  the  Hebrews  with  their  Yahweh,  took  the  latter.J 

Babylonia  and  Assyria 

Behold,  the  Assyrian  was  a  cedar  in  Lebanon  with  fair  branches, 
and  with  a  shadowing  shroud,  and  of  an  high  stature ;  and  his  top 

*  See  Sayce,  Lect.  on  the  Religion  of  Ancient  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

t  There  i^  no  doubt  that  the  Hyksos,  who  ruled  Egypt  from  B.C.  2550 
to  1597,  werq  Semites.  While  in  Egypt  they  adopted  its  civilization,  ex- 
cepting its  religion. 

\  See  Robertson  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semite*.  It  need  not  be  added 
that  pantheism  is  the  source  of  the  doctrine  of  divine  immanence,  mono- 
theism of  the  doctrine  of  divine  transcendence. 


48  THE  HISTORY  OF   EDUCATION 

was  among  the  thick  clouds.  ...  I  made  him  fair  by  the  mul- 
titude of  his  branches :  so  that  all  the  trees  of  Eden,  that  were  in 
the  garden  of  God,  envied  him.— EZEK.  XXXI.  3,  9. 

The  Chaldaeans  belong  to  the  most  ancient  of  the  Babylonians, 
and,  as  a  caste,  hold  the  same  position  in  the  state  as  the  priests  do 
in  Egypt.  Being  devoted  to  the  worship  of  the  gods,  they  philoso- 
phize during  their  whole  lifetime,  and  have  the  highest  reputation 
in  astrology.  They  are  also  much  given  to  divination,  and  prophesy 
the  future,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  endeavor  to  ward  off  evil 
and  bring  about  good  by  lustrations,  sacrifices,  or  incantations. 
.  .  .  The  study  of  these  things  they  do  not  pursue  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Greeks  do.  Among  the  Chaldaeans  the  philosophy 
of  these  things  is  a  matter  of  family  tradition.  The  son  receives  it 
from  the  father,  and  is  exempt  from  all  other  public  duty.  Having 
their  fathers  as  teachers,  they  have  abundant  opportunities  to  learn, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  attend  with  greater  confidence  to  what  is 
taught  them.  Moreover,  since  they  receive  instruction  from  their 
very  earliest  years,  they  attain  great  proficiency,  both  because  these 
years  are  the  most  impressionable,  and  because  the  time  of  study  is 
thereby  lengthened.  Among  the  Greeks,  on  the  contrary,  most 
people  take  up  the  study  of  philosophy  late  and  unprepared,  pursue 
it  awhile,  and  then  give  it  up,  being  drawn  away  by  material  in- 
terests.— DIODORUS  SICCLUS,  Bibl.  Hist.,  Bk.  II.,  §  29. 

Babylon  was  the  source  to  which  the  entire  stream  of  ancient 
civilization  may  be  traced.  It  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that,  but 
for  Babylon,  real  civilization  might  not  even  yet  have  dawned  upon 
the  earth. — RAWLINSON,  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  III.,  p.  76. 

With  much  that  was  barbaric  still  attaching  to  them,  with  a  rude 
and  inartificial  government,  savage  passions,  a  debasing  religion, 
and  a  general  tendency  to  materialism,  they  (the  Assyrians)  were, 
toward  the  close  of  their  empire,  in  all  the  ordinary  arts  and 
appliances  of  life,  very  nearly  on  a  par  with  ourselves ;  and  thus 
their  history  furnishes  a  warning  .  .  .  that  the  greatest  material 
prosperity  may  co-exist  with  the  decline— and  herald  the  downfall — 
of  a  kingdom. — RAWLINSON,  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  II.,  p.  244. 

Between  the  cuneiform  script  of  Sargon  and  Naram  Sin  (B.C. 
3800)  and  that  of  Nebuchadnezzar  there  is  comparatively  little 


BAKBAKIAN   EDUCATION  49 

difference;  between  it  and  the  script  of  the  early  texts    . 
there  lies  the  difference  between  the  writing  of  a  child  and  the 
writing  of  a  grown-up  man. — SAYCE,  Contemp.  Rev.,  Jan.,  1897, 
p.  85. 

Name- giving  was  an  important  event  in  the  child's  life.  Like 
other  nations  of  antiquity,  the  Babylonians  conformed  the  name 
with  the  person  who  bore  it  ;  it  not  only  represented  him,  but  in  a 
sense  was  actually  himself. — SAYCE,  Babylonians  and  Assyrians, 
p.  44. 

History  and  chronology,  geography  and  law,  private  and  public 
correspondence,  despatches  from  generals  and  proclamations  of 
the  king,  philology  and  mathematics,  natural  science  in  the  shape 
of  bears  and  birds,  insects  and  stones,  astronomy  and  astrology, 
theology  and  the  pseudo-science  of  omens,  all  found  a  place  on  the 
shelves,  as  well  as  purely  literary  works.  ...  In  Babylonia 
every  great  city  had  its  collection  of  books,  and  scribes  were  con- 
stantly employed  in  it,  copying  and  reading  the  older  literature,  or 
providing  new  works  for  readers.  .  .  .  The  library  was  usually 
within  the  walls  of  a  temple,  and  sometimes  it  was  part  of  the 
archives  of  the  temple  itself.  .  .  .  The  school  must  have  been 
attached  to  the  library,  and  was  probably  an  adjacent  building. 
.  .  .  The  school  in  later  times  developed  into  a  university.  At 
Borsippa,  the  suburb  of  Babylon,  where  the  library  had  been 
established  in  the  temple  of  Nebo,  we  learn  from  Strabo  that  a 
university  also  existed  which  had  attained  great  celebrity.  .  .  . 
In  Assyria  education  was  mainly  confined  to  the  upper  classes. 
The  trading  classes  were  perforce  obliged  to  learn  how  to  read  and 
write ;  so  also  were  the  officials  and  all  those  who  looked  forward 
to  a  career  in  the  diplomatic  service.  ...  In  Babylonia  it  was 
otherwise.  Here  a  knowledge  of  writing  was  far  more  widely 
spread,  and  one  of  the  results  was  that  varieties  of  handwriting 
became  as  numerous  as  they  are  in  the  modern  world. — Ibid.,  pp. 
62-55. 

Turanian  culture  had  lasted  for  thousands  of  years  and 
attained  a  considerable  height  in  the  regions  of  Sumir  and 
Akkad,  when  it  was  rudely  disturbed  by  the  inroads  of 
4 


60  THE  HI8TOEY   OF  EDUCATION 

semi-savage  Semites  from  the  Arabian  desert,  the  "  land 
of  the  bow/'  After  much  fighting,  these  at  last  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  whole  of  Mesopotamia.  At 
first,  six  or  seven  thousand  years  ago,  they  settled  in 
the  southern  portion,  in  Chaldaea,  and  built  themselves 
towns  in  the  midst  of  the  Sumirians  and  Akkadians,  grad- 
ually adopting  their  higher  civilization  and,  with  it,  their 
system  of  writing,  their  religious  literature,  and  their 
gods,  and  finally  combining  into  a  great  Chaldseo-Semitic 
kingdom,  with  its  centre  at  Babil  (Babylon).*  Later  on, 
they  spread  northward  from  Chaldasa,  and  founded  the 
powerful  empire  of  Assyria,!  with  its  centre,  first  at 
Ashur,  later  at  Nineveh.  From  about  B.C.  2000  to  606, 
Assyria  was  the  more  powerful  state,  extending  its  sway 
over  the  whole  of  Western  Asia,  including  Cyprus,  and 
sometimes  even  Egypt;  but,  after  the  latter  date,  Baby- 
lonia once  more  rose  to  eminence,  only  to  succumb,  in 
less  than  a  century,  to  the  Persian  Empire  of  Cyrus  the 
Great  (B.C.  538). 

During  the  long  rule  of  the  Semites  in  Mesopotamia, 
their  culture  never  belied  its  double  origin,  and  never  rose 
above  barbarism  to  civic  freedom.  The  moral  person, 
if  we  may  so  speak,  was  still  the  nation,  against  which  the 
individual  had  no  rights.  Even  before  the  arrival  of  the 
Semites  in  Chaldaa,  the  distinction  between  priests  and 
laymen  had  been  clearly  drawn.  After  that  event,  this 
distinction  was  further  emphasized  by  the  fact  that,  while 
the  military  class  of  the  Chaldaeans  gradually  yielded  its 

*  See  Rawlinson,  Ancient  Monarchies.  Vols.  I.  and  II. ;  Sayce,  Led. 
on  the  Relig.  of  Ancient  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  and  Recent  Discoveries 
in  Babylonia  in  Contemporary  Review,  January,  1897;  Jastrow,  The 
Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

t  Bee  Gen.  X.  10, 11. 


BARBARIAN  EDUCATION  51 

place  to  the  Semites,  the  priestly  class  retained  and  even 
increased  its  authority,  imposing  its  highly  developed 
religious  system  upon  the  conquerors.  'Thus  it  came  to 
pass  that,  while  the  military  class  was,  for  the  most  part, 
Semitic,  and  spoke  a  Semitic  language,  the  priestly  class 
was  Turanian  and  spoke  a  Turanian  language.  Hence 
there  arose  a  condition  of  things  similar  to  that  which  ex- 
isted in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Age,  when  the  clergy,  the 
sole  repositaries  of  learning,*  used  one  language,  and  the 
other  classes  another.  The  result  was  the  same  in  both 
cases,  a  separation  between  religious  and  secular  life,  and 
the  growth  of  a  purely  sacerdotal  religion,  consisting  of 
rites,  mysteries,  and  mysterious  doctrines,  unintelligible 
to  the  people  generally,  but  investing  the  priesthood  with 
awesome  dignity  and  power,  capable  of  being  used  to  the 
detriment  of  the  state,  or  of  individuals.  Perhaps  no- 
where in  the  world  did  official  superstition  ever  flourish 
so  luxuriantly  as  in  Babylonia.  But  Babylonian  supersti- 
tion had  two  sides,  an  exoteric,  consisting  of  rites  and 
prayers  and  accessible  to  everybody,  and  an  esoteric,  form- 
ing a  kind  of  fanciful  philosophy,  which  functioned  with 
persons  instead  of  ideas,  and  was  closely  related  to  astrol- 
ogy. This  was  confined  to  the  priests  alone,  f  who  un- 
questionably endeavored  to  construct  for  themselves  a 
"  System  of  the  Universe  "  satisfactory  to  reason,  as  in 

*  It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  ancient,  as  well  as  all  med- 
iaeval, science  relates  to  the  invisible,  the  sphere  of  religion.  Even 
Greek  science  (ema-rynr))  is  no  exception  to  this  rule. 

t  In  nearly  all  oriental  religions,  including  the  Greek,  there  are  these 
two  sides.  See  even  Mark  IV.  11,  and  cf.  Bigg,  Christian  Platonists  of 
Alexandria,  pp.  91  seq.,  141  seq.  Babylonian  esotericism  lies  at  the 
basis,  not  only  of  Gnosticism,  Pantheism,  and  Manicheism,  but  also  of 
the  entire  mediaeval  astronomico-ethical  system  of  the  universe,  BO  won- 
derfully set  forth  in  Dante's  great  poem.  On  Esotericism  see  Max 
Miiller,  Theosophy,  or  Psychological  Religion,  pp.  337  seq. ,  where  there 
is  some  exaggeration. 


52  THE  HISTOKY   OF  EDUCATION 

them  developed.  Thus  they  produced  a  kind  of  science, 
which,  though  mainly  fanciful,  barred  the  way  for  real 
science  for  thousands  of  years.* 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  not  difficult  to  divine 
the  nature  of  Assyro-Babylonian  education.  It  was 
priestly;  it  was  imparted  in  regular  schools  connected 
with  the  temples;  it  related  chiefly  to  the  unseen;  it  was 
hostile  to  true  education.  Yet  it  included  many  subjects, 
and  carried  some  of  them  to  considerable  perfection — 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  astronomy,  music,  literature, 
philology,  architecture,  painting,  sculpture,  worship, 
divination,  medicine,  history,  chronology,  geography, 
natural  science,  and  ethics.  The  first  two,  owing  to  the 
clumsy  and  complicated  nature  of  the  cuneiform  script, 
were  very  difficult,  and  must  have  demanded  much  time 
i  and  patience.  Besides,  writing  upon  soft  clay  cannot 
1  have  been  easy  to  learn.  Some  of  this  writing  is  so  fine 
that  it  can  be  read  only  under  a  microscope,  and  must 
have  been  written  under  one.f  The  astronomy  of  the 
Assyro-Babylonians  was  very  advanced,  and  seems  to  im- 
ply the  use  of  the  telescope  ;|  but  it  was  pursued  mainly 
for  astrological  purposes,  for  casting  horoscopes,  etc. 
They  invented  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  named  many  of 
the  constellations,  and  were  able  to  predict  eclipses  of  the 
moon.  Of  their  music  we  know  but  little;  but  we  are 
sure  that,  like  all  Semites,  they  were  fond  of  it,  and 
played  on  many  instruments.  Their  literature,  consisting 
chiefly  of  epic  and  lyric  poetry  of  a  religious  character, 
was  marked  by  sublimity,  and  must  have  exerted  a  power- 

*  See  previous  note. 

t  A  lens  of  considerable  power  has  been  found  at  Nimrud  (Calah). 
See  Rawlinson,  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  390  seq. 
I  See  Rawlinson,  ut  sup.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  578. 


BABBARIAN   EDUCATION  53 

ful  influence  on  education.  The  existence  of  an  ancient 
priestly  language,  alongside  the  ordinary  spoken  Semitic, 
rendered  philology,  the  study  of  language  and  its  rules, 
a  necessity;  and  we  shall  perhaps  not  err  if  we  assume 
that  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  were  the  earliest 
grammarians  and  lexicographers.  Indeed,  we  possess 
rudimentary  clay  grammars  and  lexicons  from  their 
hands.  Literature  was,  indeed,  a  profession,  exercised 
by  the  priests,  who  were  also  the  archivists  and  librari- 
ans. Babylonia  enjoys  the  credit  of  having  established  OC' 
the  earliest  libraries.  There  seems  to  have  been  one  in 
every  city,  and  a  famous  one,  in  early  times,  at  Sippara 
(Heb.  Sephervaim),  the  city  of  the  Sun,  perhaps  a  sort  of 
university  town,  like  the  Egyptian  On  or  Heliopolis,  and 
the  Palestinian  Kirjath-Sepher  (Book-town)  in  pre- 
Hebrew  days.*  The  architecture,  sculpture,  and  paint-  \ 
ing  of  the  Assyro-Babylonians  evinced  great  technical 
skill,  but  never  rose  above  a  prosaic  naturalism  or  colos- 
sality,  and  never  showed  any  appreciation  of  perspective 
or  artistic  unity.  Their  medicine,  divination,  and  worship 
were  mainly  magical  rites,  digested  into  elaborate  and 
imposing  systems.  Their  history  consisted  mostly  of 
annals,  kept  for  thousands  of  years  with  scrupulous 
care,  and  arranged  according  to  a  chronology  of  re- 
markable accuracy.  Their  geographical  and  ethno- 
logical knowledge  was  as  wide  as  their  empire,  and  is 
fairly  represented  in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis,  f  Their  \ 
natural  history  included  mineralogy,  botany,  and  zoology,  \ 

*  Sippara  and  Sepher  are  obviously  allied.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  Hebrew  Sopherim  (see  p.  78)  had  their  prototypes  in  Babylonia. 
On  Kirjath-sepher  see  Sayce,  Egypt  of  the  Hebrews,  pp.  67  seq. 

t  See  Kawlinson,  The  Origin  of  Nations.  Ft.  II.,  and  Schrader,  The 
Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  the  Old  Test.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  61-103. 


64  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

in  all  of  which  they  showed  considerable  proficiency. 
Their  ethics  was  closely  related  to  their  religion,  and 
revolved  round  the  notion  of  sin  or  transgression,  which 
seems  to  have  originated  with  them,  and  according  to 
which  evil  acts  are  judged,  not  as  expressions  of  charac- 
ter, or  as  affecting  human  beings,  but  as  offences  against 
unseen  powers.*  Hence  no  distinction  was  made  between 
moral  and  ceremonial  delinquencies,  or  between  delin- 
quencies and  errors.  In  all  cases  the  ethical  motive  was 
craven  fear,  which  lay  like  a  dead  weight  upon  men  whom 
superstition  had  convinced  of  their  utter  unworthiness 
and  helplessness  in  the  presence  of  irresponsible  gods. 
Such  ethics  produced  their  natural  results — fanatic  re- 
ligiosity and  superstitious  observance  coupled  with  every 
species  of  vice — incontinence,  cruelty,  treachery.  It  is 
never  safe  to  deprive  the  human  being  of  his  sense  of  dig- 
nity and  nobility,  by  making  him  feel  himself  the  slave 
of  any  capricious  power,  seen  or  unseen,  however  sub- 
lime. Thus  the  Assyro-Babylonians,  though  contribut- 
ing many  and  important  elements  to  materiaXciyiliaatioji, 
stand  as  a  warning  to  the  world,  of  how  little  such  civili- 
zation contributes  to  human  well-being,  when  not  rest- 
ing on  a  moral  basis.  Jeremiah  might  well  prophesy: 
"Babylon  shall  become  heaps,  a  dwelling-place  for 
jackals,  an  astonishment  and  an  hissing,  without  an  in- 
habitant" (LI.,  37). 

The  civilization  of  the  Assyro-Babylonians,  like  that  of 
the  Egyptians,  was  transmitted  to  Europe  by  the  Phceni- 

*  It  seems  probable  that  the  abject  sense  of  sin,  so  prominent  in  many 
of  the  Babylonian  penitential  psalms,  was  the  result  of  the  terrorism 
which  the  Turanian  priests  exercised  over  the  Semitic  warriors,  and  by 
which  they  were  able  to  maintain  their  own  authority.  Muhammad  used 
the  same  means  with  the  same  result. 


BABBABIAN   EDUCATION  55 

dans,  Greeks,  and  Hebrews — the  arts  by  the  first,  the 
thought  by  the  second,  the  religion  by  the  third.  Of  the 
education  of  the  last  two  peoples  we  shall  speak  further. 
This  would  be  the  place  to  speak  of  the  education  of 
the  Phoenicians,  if  we  had  any  sufficient  knowledge  of  it. 
But  we  have  not.  We  merely  know  that  in  religion, 
mythology,  and  ideals  of  life,  they  resembled  the  Baby- 
lonians; that  they  were  cruel,  luxurious,  and  lascivious; 
and  that,  more  than  any  people  of  the  ancient  world,  they 
devoted  themselves  to  commerce  and  manufacture.*  For 
many  ages  they  were  the  great  purveyors  and  colonizers 
of  the  ancient  world.  As  a  result  of  this,  the  world  owes 
them  two  things,  the  science  of  navigation  and  a  phonetic 
alphabet.  The  antecedents  of  the  latter  are  very  doubt- 
ful. Some  have  sought  for  them  in  the  hieroglyphs  of 
Egypt,  others  in  the  cuneiform  script  of  Babylon,  others 
again  in  the  writing  of  the  Hittites.f  The  important 
things  to  note  here  are  that  the  Phoenicians,  like  the 
Egyptians,  wrote  from  right  to  left,  and  that  they  wrote 
only  consonants.  It  was  reserved  for  the  Greeks  to  add 
the  vowels,  and  so  produce  a  perfectly  phonetic  alphabet, 
which  has  become  the  basis  of  all  European  alphabets. 

(C)  ANCIENT  ARYAN  EDUCATION 

Proud  in  their  conquering  might,  those  tribes  called  themselves 
"  Arya,"  or  "Noble,"  a  term  denoting  the  contempt  they  felt  for 
the  dark-skinned  races  they  found  in  possession  of  the  land. — 
FRAZER,  Literary  Hist,  of  India,  p.  2. 

*See  Isaiah  XXIII;  Ezek.  XXVIII.,  and  cf.  Robertson  Smith, 
Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  26  seq.  ;  Pietschmann,  Die  Phonicier,  through- 
out ;  Lindsay,  History  of  Merchant  Shipping  and  Ancient  Commerce. 

t  For  the  latest  views  se^  Delitzsch,  Die,  Entstehung  des  celtesten 
Schriftsystems,  pp.  221-31 ;  Conder,  The  Hittites  and  Their  Language, 
passim. 


66  THE  HISTORY  OP  EDUCATION 

The  Aryans,  the  third  and  last  of  the  races  that  have 
borne  the  torch  of  culture,  seem  to  have  risen  from 
savagery  to  barbarism  on  the  steppes  of  Southern  Eussia. 
Here,  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  vegetation,  and  with  a  cli- 
mate neither  too  severe  nor  too  mild,  they  pastured  their 
herds,  and  sowed  their  crops  for  many  ages.  They  were 
acquainted  with  many  domestic  animals,  and  several 
i  fruit-trees  and  cereals.  They  lived  in  house-communities, 
'  I  sibs,  or  clans,  presided  over  by  fathers  or  chiefs,  and  en- 
tertained great  affection  for  their  homes  and  hearths. 
Being,  as  agriculturists,  dependent  on  the  weather  and 
the  seasons,  they  reverenced  especially  the  powers  sup- 
posed to  control  these — Sky,  Sun,  Moon,  Wind,  Fire,  etc. 
Their  gods  being  thus  gods  of  order  and  measurement, 
and  neither  gloomy  nor  capricious,  they  themselves  be- 
came early  accustomed  to  calm  reflection  and  calculation. 
About  the  names  of  these  gods  we  know  very  little. 
Unlike  the  Semites,  who  seized  wholes  at  a  glance,  and 
only  gradually  analyzed  them,  the  Aryans  seized  details 
and  gradually  combined  them  into  wholes,  thus  arriving 
at  universal  laws  and  law-givers.  These  law-givers,  or 
gods,  formed,  like  themselves,  a  family  more  or  less  har- 
monious, under  a  father  or  chief,  and  the  world  governed 
by  them,  instead  of  being  a  scene  of  miracle  and  caprice, 
came  to  appear  as  an  ordered  whole,  whose  wavs  might  be 
foreseen  and  taken  advantage  of.  Thus  the  Aryans  had, 
from  an  early  period,  a  distinct  bent  toward  science  and 
philosophy  and  away  from  theology.  While  the  Semites 
explained  the  world  as  the  miraculous  creation  of  gods  or 
a  god,  the  Aryans  explained  it  as  the  result  of  an  evolu- 
tion, in  the  course  of  which  the  gods  themselves  came 


BABBARIAN   EDUCATION  57 

into  being.*  If  their  relations  to  nature  became  in  this 
way  rational  and  calculated,  so  did  their  relations  to  their 
fellow-men.  Compelled,  for  agricultural  reasons,  to  adopt 
more  or  less  settled  abodes,  they  insured  the  safety  of 
themselves,  their  crops,  and  their  herds,  by  erecting  for- 
tifications and  entering  into  agreements  with  their  neigh- 
bors. In  this  way  they  developed  that  political  talent  in 
which  they  excel  all  other  peoples.  While  the  Semites 
tended  to  theocracy,  faith,  and  ritual,  the  Aryans  tended 
to  civicism,  science,  and  ethical  practice.  To  the  Semites  ' 
we  owe  the  Church;  to  the  Aryans,  the  State.  » 

At  a  period  not  long  antedating  the  dawn  of  recorded 
history,  large  numbers  of  Aryans,  under  tried  chiefs, 
spread  East  and  West,  over  lands  previously  occupied  by 
Turanian  and  Semitic  culture,  and  much  further.  They 
appear  later  as  Hindus,  Iranians  (Medes  and  Persians), 
Kelts,  Germans,  Greeks,  Latins,  Slavs.  In  fact,  they 
overran  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe  and  a  large  part  of 
Asia.  Most  of  their  political  foundations  belong  to  the 
period  of  civicism;  but  there  are  two  which  may  fairly  S 
be  assigned  to  that  of  barbarism — India  and  Iran.  In 
the  former  they  mingled  with  a  Turanian  people,  who  had 
never  undergone  Semitic  influence;  in  the  latter,  they 
found  a  culture  compounded  of  Turanian  and  Semitic 
elements.  In  both  cases,  they  settled  in  the  midst  of  a 
culture  higher  than  their  own. 

*  With  the  Babylonian  Creation-epic  (G.  Smith,  Chaldcean  Account 
of  Genesis,  Chap.  V.)  and  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  cf.  Rig- Veda 
(Muller's  Hist,  of  Ancient  Sanskrit  Lit.,  p.  564),  Hesiod's  Tfieogony, 
and  the  Eddie  Voluspd.  On  Primitive^  Aryanism  generally  see  6. 
Schrader,  Prehistoric  Antiquities  of  the  Aryan  Peoples;  Max  Miiller, 
Biographies  of  Words  and  the  Home  of  the  Aryas,  chaps.  YI.jYH.  i  Van 
den  Gheyii,  J^Origine  Europeenne  des  Aryas. 


58  THE  HISTORY    OF   EDUCATION 


(1)  India 

India  was  governed  by  priests,  and  the  weal  of  the  nation  was 
sacrificed  with  reckless  indifference. — GARBE,  The  Monist,  1892, 
p.  50. 

The  Hindu  enters  this  world  as  a  stranger ;  all  his  thoughts  are 
directed  to  another  world ;  he  takes  no  part  even  where  he  is  driven 
to  act,  and  when  he  sacrifices  his  life  it  is  but  to  be  delivered  from 
it.  No  wonder  that  a  nation  like  the  Indian  cared  so  little  for  his- 
tory ;  no  wonder  that  social  and  political  virtues  were  little  culti- 
vated, and  the  ideas  of  the  Useful  and  the  Beautiful  scarcely 
known  to  them. — MAX  MULLER,  History  of  Ancient  Sanskrit  Lit.) 
p.  18. 

Some  four  thousand  years  ago,  bands  of  Aryans  from 
the  northwest  entered  the  Pan  jab,  and  thence  gradually 
spread  themselves  over  the  plains  of  India,  occupied  by 
races  already  in  process  of  decay.  They  had  already,  in 
the  Panjab,  reached  a  considerable  degree  of  organiza- 
tion, under  military  chiefs,  and  had  a  considerable  hymn- 
literature  of  religious  import,  recited  by  priests,  a  class 
which  had  already  risen  to  prominence.  Their  gods  were 
the  powers  of  nature,  conspicuous  among  which  was 
Agni,  the  Fire,  the  heaven-descended  divinity  of  the 
domestic  hearth.*  They  appear  to  have  been  a  proud, 
vigorous,  serious  people,  without  gloom  or  frivolity,  but 
with  a  contempt  for  weakness  and  inaction.  Soon  after 
their  settlement,  however,  their  environment  began  to  tell 
upon  them.  Accustomed  to  an  invigorating  climate  and 
manly  exercises,  they  found  it  hard  to  adapt  themselves 
to  the  debilitating  climate  and  inertia  of  their  new  home. 
Under  the  influence  of  these  and  of  the  gloomy,  brooding 

*  See  Frazer,  Literary  History  of  India,  pp.  41  seq. 


59 

religion  of  the  conquered  peoples,*  they  lost  their  force 
of  will,  and  sank  slowly  into  a  condition  of  weariness, 
sensitiveness,  and  half -morbid  dreaminess.  Eeligion,  in 
the  sense  of  anxiety  about  the  life  to  come,  now  became 
their  chief  concern,  and,  no  longer  delighting  in  activity, 
they  were  fain  to  picture  that  life  as  a  condition  of  com- 
plete and  enduring  rest.  The  visible  world  became  un- 
real to  them  in  proportion  as  the  invisible  world  became 
real.f  Under  these  circumstances  it  followed  naturally 
that,  while  the  warrior  class  sank  into  a  secondary  posi- 
tion, the  priestly  class  rose  to  the  first  rank,  and,  being 
honored  in  idleness,  cast  contempt  upon  those  who  had 
to  labor.  Thus  the  Aryans  were  divided  up  into  three  j 
classes,  or  castes:  (1)  the  priestly  Brahmans;  (2)  the 
warrior  Kshatriyas;  (3)  the  agricultural  Vaisyas.  Below 
all  these  were  the  Sudras,  or  servile  conquered  population. 

The  Brahmans  were  not  only  the  priests,  but  also  the 
scholars,  of  the  Hindus.  To  them  belonged  all  learning 
(Veda)  and  the  sole  right  to  instruct  their  fellow-men  in 
things  supernatural  and  invisible.  Their  learning  con- 
sisted in  the  ability  to  recite  the  ancient  national  religious 
hymns,  which,  in  course  of  time,  had  come  to  be  regarded 
as  divinely  inspired,  to  perform  the  numerous  sacrifices, 
and  intone  the  numerous  prayers  and  charms,  in  which 
divine  worship  consisted.  Such  learning  might  be  im- 
parted to  any  of  the  Aryan  castes;  but  the  Sudras  were 
forbidden,  on  pain  of  death,  to  appropriate  any  part  of  it. 

The  Veda,  which  forms  the  basis  of  all  Hindu  educa- 
tion and  literature,  has  come  down  to  us  in  the  form  of 
four  manuals,  three  of  which  correspond  to  as  many  or- 

*  Frazer,  ut  sup. ,  pp.  64  seq. 

t  Max  Miiller,  Hist,  of  Ancient  Sanskrit  Lit.,  pp.  18  seq. 


60  THE  HISTOKY  OF  EDUCATION 

ders  of  Brahmanic  priests — the  Rig-Veda  to  the  Hotar, 
who  invites  the  gods  to  the  sacrificial  feast;  the  Sama- 
Veda  to  the  Udgatar,  who  prepares  and  presents  the  soma- 
juice  or  other  offering,  and  the  Yajur-Veda  to  the  Adh- 
varyu,  who  performs  the  sacrificial  act.  The  Brahman 
who  superintends  the  whole  must  know  all  these  three 
Vedas;  and  the  fourth,  or  Atharva-Veda,  instead  of  being 
his  manual,  is  rather  the  Veda  of  the  Kshatriyas  and  fur- 
nishes the  rules  for  domestic  worship,  births,  weddings, 
deaths,  sicknesses,  etc.  Each  Veda,  again,  consists  of 
three  elements  (1)  samhita,  that  is,  collections  of  verses, 
songs,  or  sacrificial  formulas;  (2)  Irahmanam,  or  instruc- 
tion in  the  use  of  the  samhita;  (3)  sutram,  or  compendi- 
ous statement  of  the  contents  of  the  Irdhmanas,  made  in 
order  to  assist  the  memory,  and  form  the  basis  of  ex- 
planation. The  brahmanas,  again,  consist  of  three  ele- 
ments (1)  vidhi,  or  prescription;  (2)  athravdda  or  ex- 
planation, and  (3)  veddnta  (veda-end),  or  philosophical 
reflection.*  It  is  out  of  this  last  that  all  the  systems  of 
Hindu  philosophy  have  sprung.  Looking  back  over  the 
contents  of  the  Veda,  as  they  arise  in  the  order  of  time,  we 
can  trace  the  whole  development  of  Hindu  thought  from 
the  early  pastoral  hymns  addressed  to  the  powers  of 
nature — fire,  sky,  wind,  etc. — up  to  the  most  abstruse  and 
empty  conceptions  and  formulas  in  which  the  unscientific 
mind  seeks  to  grasp  that  indefinite  something  which  it 
supposes  to  lie  behind  all  the  variety  of  the  world  and  of 
thought,  and  to  condition  both.  And  this  leads  us  to  con- 

I  aider  the  determining  aim  of  Indian  education. 
This  aim  changed  from  period  to  period.    In  ancient 
times,  when  the  military  class  was  dominant,  education 

*See  Denssen,  Das  System  des  Vedanta,  pp.  5-12. 


BARBARIAN   EDUCATION  61 

had  reference  largely  to  this  life,  though  the  people  were 
not  without  the  hope  of  another,  with  the  fathers  and  gods 
hereafter.  In  the  hymns  of  the  Kig-Veda,  there  is  not  a 
shadow  of  pessimism,  or  weariness,  or  brooding  over 
death,  but  everywhere  a  breath  of  victorious  vigor  and 
confidence.  The  people  pray  to  Agni  (Fire)  to  carry  the 
souls  of  the  deceased  to  the  Home  of  the  Fathers,  there  to 
enjoy  bliss.*  Gradually  we  find  the  priestly  influence 
appearing  in  the  belief  that  Agni  is  the  bridge  between 
men  and  gods,  and  that  the  more  a  man  sacrifices  through 
Agni,  the  more  sure  is  he  to  go  to  the  gods  and  to  be- 
come like  them.  As  the  priests  were  the  sacrificers,  they 
naturally  gained  in  power  and  wealth  as  the  sacrifices  in- 
creased, until  they  came  to  surpass  the  military  chiefs 
and  kings  in  the  estimation  of  the  people,  who  now, 
under  their  influence,  turned  their  thoughts  to  the  life 
beyond  the  grave,  and  tried  to  imagine  its  conditions. 
Thus  there  arose  an  elaborate  doctrine  of  the  destiny  of 
the  good  and  the  evil,  and  in  connection  therewith  an 
elaborate  sacrificial  system,  occupying  the  chief  place  in 
life.  But  matters  did  not  stop  here.  Brooding  reflection, 
once  started,  and  combined  with  the  growing  desire  for 
rest,  gradually  made  men  feel  an  aversion  both  to  the 
practices  by  which  heaven  might  be  gained,  and  to  that 
heaven  itself,  with  its  continued  activities  and  stimu- 
lating phenomena.  Hereupon  they  began  to  look  for- 
ward with  pleasure  to  the  emancipation  of  the  individual 
soul  from  the  delusion  of  phenomena  and  of  multiple 
selfhood,  and  the  remerging  of  it  in  the  general  soul,f 
now  regarded  as  the  sole  reality.  Hence,  serious  and 

*  Frazer,  Lit.  Hist,  of  India,  pp.  38  seq.,  124  ueq. 
t  Tennyson,  In  Memoriam,  XLVIL 


62  THE  HISTORY    OF   EDUCATION 

pious  men,  after  having  duly  performed  their  part  as 
sons,  hushands,  fathers,  and  citizens,  began  to  retire 
into  the  forest,  to  prepare,  by  self-abnegation  and  medi- 
tation, for  this  emancipation.  In  consequence  of  this, 
there  sprang  up  the  notion  of  a  twofold  bliss,  one  tem- 
poral and  the  other  eternal.  The  former,  attainable 
through  pious  deeds  and  sacrifice,  brought  men  after 
death,  by  the  circuitous  "  path  of  the  fathers,"  to  the 
starry  heaven  of  the  fathers,  where,  under  the  supreme 
lord,  they  enjoyed  the  reward  of  their  deeds  and  after- 
ward returned  for  renewed  life  on  earth.  The  latter, 
attainable  only  by  meditation  and  grace,  enabled  men 
to  realize,  and  attain  complete  identity  with,  the  su- 
preme and  universal  being,  a  condition  of  unconscious 
bliss  from  which  there  was  no  return.  This  higher  bliss 
gradually  became  the  aim  of  all  earnest  men,  and  the 
life  of  India  was  gradually  modified  with  a  view  to  its 
attainment.  The  phenomenal  world,  with  its  duties, 
activities,  and  enjoyments,  now  became  a  delusive 
dream,  from  which  it  was  man's  chief,  or  only,  duty 
to  free  himself,  while  the  invisible  world  became  the 
all-in-all  of  reality. 

The  roots  of  this  tendency  are  present  in  all  people 
who  deify  the  powers  of  nature  without  completely  per- 
sonifying and  individuating  them.  The  gods  so  created 
remain  diffused  and  vague,  and,  when  man  conceives 
himself  as  of  their  nature — as  breath  or  spirit,  for  ex- 
ample— his  conception  of  himself  is  equally  vague. 
Observing,  moreover,  that  natural  powers  and  elements 
pass  readily  into  each  other,  he  comes  to  believe  that  all 
things,  himself  included,  are  but  modifications  of  one 
primal,  indefinite  substance,  which  thus  becomes  the 


BARBAKIAN   EDUCATION  63 

sole  reality,  while  all  the  modifications  or  determina- 
tions are  mere  transitory,  restless  phenomena.  When, 
in  decadence,  he  grows  weary  and  longs  for  rest,  this 
longing  takes  the  form  of  a  desire  to  return  out  of 
phenomenality  and  multiplicity  into  the  indistinction 
of  the  first  substance.  Such  is  the  origin  of  all  world- 
despising  mysticism  and  asceticism. 

The  decadent  Hindus  suffered  in  this  way:  they 
longed  to  get  away  from  the  restlessness  of  the  chang- 
ing world.  One  might  suppose  that,  under  the  circum- 
stances, they  would  have  committed  suicide;  but  this 
seemed  to  them  to  offer  no  release.  Owing  probably  to 
contact  with  the  conquered  races,  they  had  come  to  be- 
lieve, not  only  in  the  immortality  of  souls,  but  in  their 
repeated  reincarnation,  and  so  the  great  question  for 
them  came  to  be,  how  to  put  a  stop  to  this  process.  The 
answer  was:  By  abstaining,  as  far  as  possible,  from  all 
action,  all  desire,  all  thought,  and  concentrating  atten- 
tion on  that  perfectly  undefined,  and  therefore  unin- 
dividuated,  being  that  lies  behind  these.  When  one 
has  fully  recognized  that  he  is  identical  with  this  uni- 
versal being,  he  is  safe  from  metempsychosis  (samsdra), 
and  attains  to  redemption  (moksha).  "  The  question  of 
the  possibility  of  redemption  from  individual  existence, 
which  forms  the  central  point  of  the  Vedanta,  as  well 
as  of  all  other  Indian  systems,  presupposes  the  pes- 
simistic conviction  that  all  individual  existence  is  suf- 
fering. This  view,  indeed,  is  occasionally  expressed  in 
the  Veda,  as  well  as  in  the  system  itself;  though  it  by 
no  means  receives  the  emphasis  that  might  be  expected. 
How  then  is  redemption  from  the  bond  of  existence 
possible?  Not  by  works;  for  these,  the  good  as  well  as 


64  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

the  evil,  demand  their  retribution,  and  therefore  condi- 
tion a  new  existence,  causing  a  continuation  of  samsdra. 
Not  by  (moral)  purgation  (samskdra);  for  such  is  pos- 
sible only  in  the  case  of  an  object  capable  of  change, 
whereas  the  dtman,  the  soul,  whose  redemption  is  in 
question,  is  unchangeable.  Hence  redemption  cannot 
consist  in  becoming  anything,  or  in  performing  any- 
thing, but  in  the  recognition  of  something  already  ex- 
isting, but  hidden  through  ignorance.  Salvation  comes 
of  recognition.  When  the  soul  has  recognized  itself  as 
brahman,  redemption  immediately  ensues;  recognition 
of  identity  with  brahman  and  identification  with  the 
soul  of  the  universe  follow  simultaneously."  * 

Redemptive  recognition  of  self  as  brahman  is  some- 
thing that  cannot  be  attained  by  effort;  it  depends  upon 
the  grace  of  the  brahman  itself.  Man  can  only  clear  the 
way  for  its  manifestation,  and  this  he  may  do  (I.)  by 
the  study  of  the  Veda,  (II.)  by  conforming  to  the  four 
demands,  which  are,  (1)  to  distinguish  eternal  from 
non-eternal  substance,  (2)  to  renounce  all  hope  of  re- 
ward, here  and  hereafter,  (3)  to  attain  the  six  means — 
(a)  mental  calm,  (b)  self-control,  (c)  self-abnegation, 
(d)  patient  endurance,  (e)  collectedness,  (f)  faith — (4) 
to  desire  redemption.  Roughly  speaking,  we  may  say 
that  the  means  conducive  to  knowledge  are  two:  (I.) 
Works,  (II.)  Meditation.  Works  have  an  ascetic  purpose, 
and  are  not  meritorious;  they  include  not  only  the 
"  six  means,"  but  also  such  preparatory  practices  as 
sacrifice,  almsgiving,  penance,  fasting.  Meditation  is 
devotional  reflection  on  the  words  of  the  Vedic  script- 
ures, and  must,  like  threshing,  be  continued  until  the 

*Deussen,  System  des  Vedanta,  pp.  510  seq. 


BABBARIAN  EDUCATION  65 

grain  of  knowledge — the  direct  intuition  that  the  soul 
is  identical  with  brahman — is  separated  from  the  straw 
of  error,  the  belief  in  the  reality  of  the  world  and  of 
transmigration,  of  works,  and  of  enjoyment.  The  soul 
that  has  attained  to  knowledge  is  free  from  all  delusion; 
its  body  vanishes  and,  with  it,  all  activity,  pain,  and 
pleasure;  hence,  of  course,  all  moral  law.  The  germ 
of  works  is  destroyed,  so  that  no  further  birth  into  a 
phenomenal  world  is  possible,  and  the  perfected  soul 
only  awaits  the  moment  of  death  to  return  into  the  su- 
preme brahman  and  be  one  with  it.* 

Such  is  the  essence  of  Brahmanism.  Buddhism, 
which  is  a  sort  of  reformed  Brahmanism,  dating  from 
about  B.C.  500,  merely  carried  the  older  religion  to  its 
logical  conclusions.!  It  abolished,  as  delusion,  the  caste-  \ 
system  and  the  distinction  between  Aryans  and  Sudras, 
it  declared  the  active  life  to  be  unnecessary  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  contemplative;  it  emphasized  the  pain 
inseparable  from  all  individual  existence;  it  winged 
enthusiasm  for  eternal  rest  in  nothingness  (nirvana). 
Its  founder,  the  Sakya  prince,  Siddartha,  was  not  a 
Brahman,  but  a  Kshatriya,  reared  in  a  district  where 
brahmanic  teaching  was  greatly  modified  by  contact 
with  older  native  religions.  This  fact  accounts  for  its 
attitude  toward  Brahmanism.  Buddhism  flourished  for  \ 
&  time  in  India;  but  it  was  gradually  extirpated  by  the  ' 
older  and  more  human  Brahmanism,  and  forced  to  seek 
refuge  in  Nepal,  Ceylon,  Further  India,  China,  and 
Japan,  where  it  has  still  many  millions  of  adherents. 

Considering  the  ideal  of  Indian  life,  we  can  have  no  /  V 

*Deussen,  ut  sup.,  pp.  510-14. 

t  It  first  became  popular  under  Asoka,  about  260  B.C. 
5 


66  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

:  difficulty  in  realizing  the  character  of  the  corresponding 
education.  It  was  wholly  ethical  and  ascetic.  The 
world,  being  regarded  as  a  delusion,  was,  of  course,  con- 
sidered unworthy  of  serious  attention;  hence,  there  was 
no  science.  Self-discipline  was  the  sole  study,  and  this, 
it  must  be  admitted,  gave  occasion  to  some  attractive 
virtues,  especially  under  Buddhism — sympathy,  gentle- 
ness, endurance,  unworldliness,  etc.  It  is  easy  and 
common,  however,  to  misunderstand  and  overestimate 
these.  After  all,  Buddhism  and,  to  a  large  extent, 
Brahmanism,  are  "  systems  of  organized  weariness,"  not 
to  say  of  cowardice,  or  dread  of  pain;  hence,  all  the 
virtues  of  the  two  great  Indian  religions  rest  upon  a 
foundation  of  cowardice,  and  aim  only  at  unconditional 
sloth,  entailing  the  loss  of  the  moral  individuality.  Un- 
der such  circumstances,  India,  of  course,  never  rose  to 
the  civic  grade  of  culture,  but,  with  all  her  subtle 
thought  and  gentle  virtues,  remained  in  a  condition  of 
unfreedom,  of  glorified  barbarism,  which  gradually  de- 
generated into  a  lower  condition  still,  until  she  fell  an 
easy  prey,  first  to  the  Muslim  and  then  to  the  Christian. 


(2)  Iran  (Medo-Persia) 

Prometheus  comes  to  examine  the  whole  troup,  and  finds  all  the 
other  animals  duly  provided  for,  but  man  without  clothes,  shoes, 
lair,  or  arms,  and  the  fated  day  approaching  when  he  must  emerge, 
as  man,  from  the  earth  into  the  light.  Prometheus,  being  at  his 
wits'  end  as  to  how  to  preserve  man  alive,  steals  the  artistic  deft- 
ness of  Hephaestus  and  Athena,  along  with  fire — for  without  fire  it 
could  not  possibly  have  been  acquired  by  anyone,  or  been  of  any 
use — and  so  presents  it  to  man.  In  this  way  man  came  into  pos- 
session of  the  useful  arts,  but  lacked  political  wisdom,  for  that 


BAKBARIAN  EDUCATION  67 

lay  with  Zeus,  and  Prometheus  was  not  yet  permitted  to  enter  the 
acropolis,  the  abode  of  Zeus. — PLATO,  Protagoras,  321  D. 

It  is  clear  that,  in  the  view  and  intention  of  the  A  vesta,  the 
priests  formed  a  closed  caste. — SPIEGEL,  Eran.  Alterthumsk,,  III., 
567. 

A  king  sat  on  the  rocky  brow 

That  looks  o'er  sea-born  Salamis. 
While  ships  in  thousands  lay  below 
And  men  in  nations  :  all  were  his. 
He  counted  them  at  break  of  day, 
And,  when  the  sun  set,  where  were  they  ? 

— BYRON. 

The  Iranians  and  Indians  are  the  two  divisions  of 
the  Asiatic  Aryans.  The  two  must  have  lived  together 
long  after  they  parted  with  the  European  Aryans. 
Their  languages*  are  very  closely  related,  and  so  are 
their  original  mythologies,  manners,  and  customs.  When 
we  first  hear  of  the  Iranians,  it  is  under  the  name  of 
Medes.f  Their  scattered  tribes  were  conquered  in  835 
B.C.  by  Shalmanezer,  and  subsequently  by  two  of  his 
successors,  thus  becoming  subject  to  Assyria.  In  this 
condition  they  adopted  much  of  the  civilization  of  their 
Semitic  conquerors,  including  several  of  their  gods,  and 
their  priestly  caste,  the  Magi,  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  Assyrians  had,  through  the  Babylonians,  borrowed 
from  the  Turanian  Sumiro-Akkadians.  Asur,  the  chief 
god  of  the  almost  monotheistic  Assyrians,  they  bor- 
rowed under  the  name  of  Ahuraf  (usually  lengthened 

*It  is  through  a  gross  misunderstanding  that  the  Iranian  language  has 
been  called  Zend.  Zend  means  commentary  ! 

t  Heb.  Madai.  See  Gen.  X.,  where  Madai  occurs  along  with  Gomer, 
Magog  (Magi  ?),  Javan,  Tubal,  Meshech,  and  Tiras.  The  Persians  are 
not  yet  named  separately. 

J  It  is  usually  assumed  that  Ahura  is  but  the  Persian  form  of  the  Indian 
(Sanikrit)  Asura,  identified  with  Varuna;  but  this  view  seems  to  me 


68  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

into  Ahura-Mazda,  Ormazd).  Thus  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury B.C.  the  Iranians  had  a  religion  composed  of  Tu- 
ranian (Magian),  Semitic  (monotheistic),  and  Aryan 
(vedic)  elements.  In  the  last  quarter  of  that  century, 
the  second  of  these  elements  was  greatly  strengthened 
by  the  importation  into  Media  of  a  large  number  of 
Israelitish  exiles*  (722  B.C.),  who  having,  under  pro- 
phetic influence,  become  monotheists,  found  no  diffi- 
culty in  identifying  their  o  ?ra  Yahweh  with  the  Median 
Ahura  (Asur),  thus  elevating  the  ideal  of  the  latter.  It 
was  in  all  probability  due  to  the  influence  of  the  same 
exiles  that  the  Medes  soon  after  became  a  powerful 
nation,  so  that,  in  606  B.C.,  they  were  able,  with  the 
help  of  the  Babylonians,  to  overthrow  the  Assyrian 
capital,  Nineveh,  and  establish  a  kingdom  of  their  own. 
It  must  have  been  about  the  same  time  that  a  band  of 
them  marched  southward  into  Semitic  lands  and  founded 
the  kingdom  of  Persia,  in  what  was  formerly,  in  part  at 
least,  Elam.f  In  less  than  a  century  after  these  events 
there  occurred  a  great  religious  movement,  which  is 
most  easily  explained  as  due  to  Israelitish  influence  J 
— Mazdeism,  whose  reputed  founder  was  the  Median 
Zarathushtra  (Zoroaster),  §  and  which  clearly  contains 

beset  with  insurmountable  objections,  that  cannot  be  enumerated  here 
It  certainly  fails  to  account  for  the  Iranian  monotheism. 

*  2  Kings  XVII.  6,  XVIII.  9.  Sargon  boasts  that  he  carried  away 
27,280  of  them  on  this  occasion.  See  Schrader,  Cuneif.  Inscriptions. 
Vol.  I.,  p.  264  (Eng.  Trans.). 

t  "  Elam  is  by  no  means  .  .  .  equivalent  to  Persia.  We  never  meet 
with  the  name  '  Persia '  or  '  Persian  '  before  the  time  of  Cyrus,  either  on 
an  Assyrian  or  a  Babylonian  monument." — Schrader,  Cuneiform  Inscrip., 
Vol.  L,  p.  96  (Bng.  Trans.). 

t  See  Darmesteter,  Zend-Avesta,  Pt.  I.,  pp.  Ivii.-bc.  (2d  Edit.) ;  Max 
Muller,  Theosophy,  pp.  48  seq. 

§  The  various  dates  assigned  to  Zarathushtra  vary  by  more  than  4,000 
years.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that,  while  the  Mazdean  movement  dates 
from  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  its  putative  founder  is  a  legendary  hero  of 
very  remote  date.  (See  Jackson,  Zoroaster^  the  Prophet  of  Ancient  Iran, 


BARBARIAN   EDUCATION  69 

Turanian,  Semitic,  and  Aryan  elements.  How  far  the 
reform  attributed  to  Zoroaster  affected  the  Medo-Per- 
sian  religion  in  pre-Hellenic  times  is  by  no  means 
clear;*  but  it  is  certain  that  the  religion  of  Ahura,  a 
potential  monotheism,  was  the  faith  of  the  Persian 
kings  from  the  time  of  Darius  I.  (521-485  B.c.).f  We 
must  say  "  potential,"  because,  thanks  to  the  Turanian 
MagianJ  element  in  it,  it  was,  outwardly,  a  physical  and 
moral  dualism.  Over  against  Ahura-Mazda,  the  power 
of  light  and  good,  it  placed  Angro-Mainyus,  the  power 
of  darkness  and  evil,  and  made  the  world  the  scene  of 
their  conflict.  This  introduced  the  ceremonial  distinc- 
tion between  things  clean  and  things  unclean,  which 
leads  to  so  much  burdensome  superstition.  The  fire- 
worship,  so  prominent  among  the  Persians,  seems  to 
contain  both  Turanian  and  Aryan  elements.  That  a 
dualistic  religion,  finding  expression  in  fire-worship, 
should  have  been  the  parent  of  any  very  lofty  moral 
ideas  is  highly  improbable.  Nor,  indeed,  do  we  find 

pp.  149-78 ;  Windischmann,  Zoroastrische  Studien,  pp.  44-56,  260-313 ; 
Darmesteter,  Zend-Avesta,  Pt.  I.,  pp.  lxvii.-lix.  It  was  common  in 
those  days  to  seek  prestige  for  religious  systems  by  attributing  them  to 
ancient  heroes.  That  the  Jews  ascribed  Mazdeism  to  Israelitish  influ- 
ence is  clear  from  Daniel  II.  48  (cf.  Ezek.  XIV.  14,  20)  and  Josephus, 
Antiq.  of  the  Jews,  Bk.  X.  ,cpp.  x.  xj. 

*  Herodotus  does  not  allude  to  Zoroaster,  nor  does  his  name  occur  in 
any  Persian  inscription.  He  was  known  to  the  Greeks  in  the  age  before 
Alexander  :  more  we  cannot  safely  affirm. 

t  See  the  famous  Behistun  inscription,  Rawlinson,  History  of  Herod- 
otus, VoL  II.,  pp.  490-514.  There  is  nothing  to  show  that  Cyrus  the 
Great,  the  founder  of  the  Persian  Empire,  was  a  worshipper  of  Ahura. 
On  his  recently  discovered  cylinder,  he  is  spoken  of  as  an  Elamite  and  as 
a  worshipper  of  Marduk  and  other  Babylonian  deities.  See  Sayce,  Fresh 
Light  from  the  Monuments,  pp.  138  seq.  It  may  well  be  that  the  legend 
which  connects  Zoroaster  with  Hystaspes  (Vistashpa),  and  the  latter 
with  the  father  of  Darius,  points  to  the  fact  that  the  worship  of  Ahura 
by  the  Persian  kings  dates  from  about  Darius's  time. 

\  On  the  Turanian  origin  of  Magism  see  Schrader,  Cuneiform  Tn- 
scrip.,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  110-15;  Spiegel,  Eran.  Alterth.  Vol.  III.,  pp.  585 
Beq. 


70  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

any  such  among  the  ancient  Iranians.  There  are,  to  be 
sure,  ideas  of  wonderful  moral  reach  in  certain  parts  of 
the  Avesta  (the  Bible  of  Iran);  but  that  work,  in  the 
form  in  which  we  now  possess  it,  dates  from  the  third 
century  of  our  era,  the  rise  of  the  Sassanids;  and  the 
parts  in  question,  particularly  the  gathas,  or  psalms, 
long  supposed  to  be  the  most  ancient  parts  of  it,  clearly 
show  the  influence  of  Greek  philosophy*  and  even  of 
Christianity.  The  fact,  th^n,  is  that  the  Iranians,  when 
they  settle  down  to  form  states,  are  an  Aryan  people, 
who  have  already  largely  adopted  two  older  forms  of 
culture,  the  Turanian  and  the  Semitic,  and  been  deeply 
influenced  by  them,  without  rising  greatly  above  them. 
And  this  is  shown  in  their  education.  Formerly  we 
were  wont  to  draw  our  notions  of  Persian  education 
from  Xenophon's  Cyropcedia;  but  we  now  know  that 
that  work  in  a  mere  edifying,  tendentious  romance,  in- 
tended to  recommend  to  the  Athenians  the  Spartan  type 
of  education.  In  spite  of  this,  it  contains  a  certain 
amount  of  truth,  as  we  see  from  a  comparison  of  the 
account  of  Herodotus  (I.,  131  sqq.),  parts  of  which  are 
here  subjoined: 

"  The  Persians  consider  it  improper  to  erect  statues, 
temples,  or  altars,  and  even  censure  those  who  do  so — 
I  suppose  because  they  do  not  conceive  the  gods  in  the 
form  of  men,  as  the  Greeks  do.  They  are  wont  to 
ascend  the  loftiest  mountains  and  perform  sacrifices  to 
Zeus,  calling  by  that  name  the  whole  vault  of  heaven. 
They  sacrifice  also  to  the  sun,  the  moon,  earth,  fire, 

*  See  translation  of  the  Avesta  by  Darmesteter  and  Mills,  in  Sacred 
Books  oftht  East.  With  Vol.  III.  (Mills),  pp.  XVII1-XXV.  cf.  VoL  I. 
(2dEdit. ,  Darmesteter),  pp.  xxx.  sqq.,  Ixiv.  sqq. 


BARBAKIAN  EDUCATION  71 

water,  and  the  winds.  To  these  alone  they  sacrificed 
originally;  but  they  have  learned,  in  addition,  from  the 
Assyrians  and  Arabians,  to  sacrifice  to  Urania.  The 
Assyrians  call  Aphrodite,  Mylitta;  the  Arabians,  Alitta; 
the  Persians,  Mitra.* 

"  They  are  greatly  given  to  wine  f  .  .  .  and  are 
wont  to  deliberate  about  the  most  important  matters 
when  they  are  drunk.  The  resolution  which  they  have 
reached  in  this  way,  the  master  of  the  house  in  which 
the  deliberation  has  taken  place  lays  before  them  again 
on  the  following  day,  when  they  are  sober;  and  if,  in 
this  condition,  it  pleases  them,  they  adopt  it;  otherwise, 
they  drop  it.  Likewise,  whatever  they  resolve  upon 
when  sober  they  reconsider  when  drunk. 

"  When  they  meet  each  other  in  the  streets,  one  can 
distinguish  whether  any  two  persons  meeting  are  of  the 
same  rank  or  not.  If  they  are,  then,  instead  of  greeting 
each  other,  they  kiss  each  other  on  the  mouth;  if  one 
is  a  little  inferior  to  the  other,  they  kiss  each  other  on 
the  cheeks;  whereas,  if  the  one  is  much  less  noble  than 
the  other,  he  falls  down  and  worships  him.  Of  all 
peoples,  they  honor — next,  of  course,  to  themselves — 
most  highly  those  who  dwell  nearest  to  them,  then  those 
who  live  next  to  these,  and  so  on.  .  .  . 

"  They  adopt  foreign  manners  more  readily  than  any 
other  people.  For  example,  thinking  the  Median  dress 
superior  to  their  own,  they  have  adopted  it;  and  in  war 
they  wear  Egyptian  breastplates.  They  practise  all 
sorts  of  luxury  they  hear  of.  ...  Each  man  mar- 
ries many  lawful  wives  and,  besides  these,  maintains  a 

*  This  is  a  mistake,  one  of  several  in  this  account, 
t  Soma  or  homa  ? 


72  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

still  larger  number  of  concubines.  Next  to  courage  in 
battle,  the  highest  mark  of  manliness  is  supposed  to  be 
a  host  of  children.  To  the  man  who  can  show  the 
largest  number  the  king  annually  sends  gifts.  They 
think  strength  lies  in  numbers.  They  instruct  their 
children,  between  the  ages  of  five  and  twenty,  in  only 
three  things — horsemanship,  archery,  and  truth-telling. 
Up  to  the  age  of  five,  the  child  does  not  come  into  its 
father's  presence,  but  passes  its  time  in  the  hareem — 
the  purpose  being  that,  if  it  dies  in  infancy,  it  may  cause 
the  father  no  grief.  This  custom  I  deem  praiseworthy, 
and  so,  likewise,  this  other,  that  even  the  king  does 
not  put  anyone  to  death  on  acount  of  a  single  fault, 
and  that  no  other  Persian  subjects  any  of  his  slaves  to 
irremediable  punishment  for  a  single  fault.  It  is  not 
till  after  he  has  weighed  the  bad  deeds  of  his  slave 
against  his  good  deeds  that  the  master  gives  vent  to  his 
anger.  They  maintain  that  no  one  ever  murdered  his 
own  parent;  that  if  such  a  case  happened,  the  chil- 
dren, upon  inquiry,  were  always  found  to  be  either 
changelings  or  bastards.  They  say  it  is  not  likely  that 
the  real  parent  should  die  by  the  hand  of  his  child.  What 
they  are  not  allowed  to  do,  they  are  not  allowed  to 
speak  of.  In  their  estimation,  the  basest  thing  is  to 
lie,  and  the  next  basest,  to  be  in  debt — and  this  for 
many  reasons,  but  especially  because  (they  say)  the 
debtor  must  tell  some  sort  of  lie.  .  .  .  They  do 
not  .  .  .  spit  or  wash  their  hands  in  rivers,  or 
permit  anyone  else  to  do  so,  but  have  the  greatest  rev- 
erence for  them.  .  .  .  The  corpse  of  a  Persian  is 
not  buried  until  it  has  been  torn  to  pieces  by  a  bird  or 
a  dog.  I  know  for  certain  that  the  Magians  do  this; 


BARBARIAN   EDUCATION  73 

for  they  do  it  publicly.  Covering  the  body  with  wax, 
the  Persians  inter  it.  The  Magians  differ  widely  from 
other  men,  and  even  from  the  Egyptian  priests.  The 
latter  make  it  a  point  of  conscience  to  kill  no  animal 
but  the  victims  for  sacrifice,  whereas  the  Magians,  with 
their  own  hands,  kill  everything  but  dogs  and  men, 
making  a  great  virtue  of  this,  and  killing,  in  like  man- 
ner, ants  and  snakes,  creeping  and  winged  things." 

Nothing  is  more  striking  than  the  wide  difference 
that  prevails  between  the  Iranians  and  their  Indian 
brethren.  This  we  may  believe  to  be  due  to  two  causes: 
(1)  that  the  Iranians  were  never  subjected  to  the  in- 
fluence of  a  debilitating  climate,  like  that  of  India,  (2) 
that  they  mingled  with  Semitic  peoples,  which  the 
Indians  did  not.  Owing  to  the  former,  the  warrior 
class  remained  superior  to  the  priestly;*  owing  to  the 
latter,  the  Iranian  religion  tended  to  monotheism,  and 
not  to  pantheism.  Ahura-Mazda  was,  plainly,  the  god 
of  the  warrior-class,  that  is,  of  the  Semitized  Aryans,  f 
As  a  consequence  of  this,  Persian  education  was  mili- 
tary, or  knightly,  and  not  priestly,  although,  no  doubt, 
the  foreign  priestly  class  had  its  own  education,  in- 
cluding astrology,  divination,  medicine,  literature,  etc.J 

Barbarism  reached  its  highest  expression  among  the 
Iranians,  and  especially  among  the  Persians. §  We  find 

*  Another  reason  for  this  was  that  the  Magian  priests,  not  being 
Aryans,  were  kept  in  an  inferior  position.  Once,  after  the  death  of 
Cyrus's  son,  Cambyses,  the  Magians  did  attempt  to  capture  the  govern- 
ment; but  they  were  speedily  put  down  by  Darius  (521).  See  Herod., 
III.,  61  seq.  Cf.  Spiegel,  Eran.  Alterthumsk.,  Ill,  567.  The  Magi  are 
not  mentioned  in  the  Avesta. 

t  Cf.  Spiegel,  ut  sup.,  III.,  601,  who  says  Mithra. 

t  See  Spiegel,  ut  sup. ,  III. ,  581  seq. 

§  The  Greeks  frequently  used  the  terms  "  Mede  "  and  "Persian  "  indis- 
criminately. The  Median  empire  lasted  from  B.  C.  606  to  538,  when  Cyrus 
put  an  end  to  it  and  founded  the  Persian  empire.  In  the  Prometheia  of 


74  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

among  them  a  certain  Promethean  virtue  and  greatness 
of  soul,  of  which  Cyrus  is  the  best  embodiment;  but 
two  things  still  weigh  upon  them,  preventing  them  from 
rising  to  civic  culture  and  artistic  freedom — a  despotic 
form  of  government  and  an  hereditary  priesthood.  Both 
these  have  to  be  overcome  ere  civicism  can  be  realized.* 

^Eschylus,  Prometheus  is  meant  to  embody  barbarian  culture,  while  ZCUB 
stands  for  the  civic  culture  of  Greece.  See  quotation  from  Plato,  p.  66. 

*See  Herod.,  III.,  31,  and  cf.  Spiegel,  firan.  Alter thumskunde,  Vol. 
III.,  pp.  606  seq. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CIVIC    EDUCATION 

Now,  lo,  if  he  beget  a  son,  that  seeth  all  his  father's  sins,  which 
he  hath  done,  and  feareth,  and  doeth  not  such  like,  ...  he 
shall  not  die  for  the  iniquity  of  his  father,  he  shall  surely  live. — 
EZEKIEL. 

The  Sabbath  was  made  for  man,  and  not  man  for  the  Sabbath. — 
JESUS. 

The  history  of  humanity  is  a  progress  in  the  consciousness  of 
freedom. — HEGEL. 

In  savagery,  men,  grouped  into  small  communities 
by  the  blood  tie,  having  but  a  meagre  experience  and 
a  beggarly  world,  and,  being  unskilled  in  the  processes 
of  abstraction  and  generalization,  are  almost  entirely 
the  slaves  of  natural  needs  and  supernatural  fears.  In 
barbarism,  organized  into  larger  communities,  with  a 
more  varied  experience,  new  discoveries,  and  division 
of  social  functions,  they  attain  a  certain  freedom  from 
their  needs  and  fears  by  establishing  special  institu- 
tions to  deal  with  these.  The  producing  class  provides 
against  hunger;  the  military,  against  visible  attacks; 
the  sacerdotal,  against  invisible  injury  from  the  super- 
natural. The  price  paid  for  this  freedom  is  complete 
subordination  to  the  system  of  these  institutions.  Thus, 
men  free  themselves  from  servitude  to  nature  and 
supernature  by  subjecting  themselves  to  conventional 

75 


76  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

institutions.  In  the  barbarian  stage  of  culture  these 
are  all-powerful,  and  the  individual  is  entirely  sub- 
merged in  the  nation,  which  is  the  moral  personality. 
Accordingly,  the  sins  of  the  fathers  are  visited  upon  the 
children;  the  curse  of  crime  descends  from  generation 
to  generation;  nay,  the  sin  of  the  father  of  mankind 
taints  the  whole  race. 

As  men  ascend  above  barbarism,  their  progress  is 
marked  by  a  gradual  emancipation  from  institutions, 
or  a  gradual  development  of  individualism.  Institu- 
tions do  not,  indeed,  disappear,  any  more  than  did  nat- 
ure when  they  arose;  but  man  now  slowly  becomes 
master  of  them,  and  rises  to  self -direction  under  insti- 
tutions, that  is,  to  true,  moral  freedom.  He  passes  from 
naive  thought  to  critical  reflection;  from  conventional 
estimates  of  things  to  rational  estimates,  on  the  basis 
of  worth  for  moral  ends;  from  action  determined  by 
status  to  action  determined  by  reflection  and  contract. 
He  now  sets  up  individual  ideals — the  saint,  the  hero, 
the  philosopher,  the  citizen — and  tries  to  realize  them 
in  life  and  in  art.  Having  now,  for  the  first  time,  some- 
thing of  his  own  to  express,  he  expresses  it  in  forms 
which  give  him  delight,  that  is,  in  forms  of  beauty. 
Recognizing  himself  to  be  an  original  source  of  action, 
and  not  a  mere  puppet  in  the  hands  of  higher  powers, 
he  claims  personal*  immortality,  and  builds  himself 
splendid  ideals  of  eternal  existence — a  life  in  heaven 
with  the  gods. 

Of  the  three  races  that  have  been  the  bearers  of 
civilization,  only  two  have  been  able  to  rise  above  bar- 

*  I  say  "  personal,"  not  "  individual."  Personality  is  an  ethical  term, 
and  it  is  always  the  ethical  attribute  that  conditions  immortality. 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  77 

barism,  the  Semitic  and  the  Aryan.*  It  was,  indeed, 
through  their  united  efforts  that  the  further  step  to 
civicism  became  possible.  The  peoples  that  best  repre- 
senJ^dyicjCjltur^L^^  the  Aryan 

Greeks  and  Komans,  who,  in  their  turn,  united  to  make 
possible  the  final,  or  human,  type  of  culture. 


(1)  Judcea 

As  a  religion  of  ethical  ideas,  Judaism  produced  not  schools  of 
philosophy,  but  schools  for  youth,  in  which  the  growing  genera- 
tion was  educated.  "Go,"  said  the  heathen  thinkers  to  their  con- 
temporaries, who  wished  to  weaken  Israel,  "go  to  the  Jewish 
schools,  in  which  the  children  are  instructed  in  the  observance  of 
the  moral  law  !  There  is  the  source  of  their  strength,  there  the 
secret  of  their  endurance.  If  you  wish  to  conquer  them,  attack 
the  schools  "  (Talmud). — STKASSBERGER,  Gesch.  der  Erzieh.  u.  d. 
Unterr.  bet  den  Israelite^  p.  33. 

The  Hebrew  people,  when  it  first  figures  in  the  pages 
of  the  Bible,  is  at  the  nomadic  and  savage  stage  of 
culture.  From  contact  with  the  settled  Canaanites  it 
rose,  in  the  days  of  Saul,  David,  and  Solomon,  into  a 
polytheistic  barbarism,  remaining  in  that  condition  as, 
long  as  it  had  a  national  existence.  Meanwhile,  how- 
ever, the  prophets — Amos,  Hoshea,  Isaiah,  Micah,  Jere- 
miah | — had  succeeded  in  raising  a  portion  of  their 
fellow-citizens  out  of  polytheism,  through  monolatry, 

*  Unless,  indeed,  it  should  prove  that  the  Japanese  are  capable  of 
taking  the  step ;  and  this  seems  probable^  If  so,  however,  they  will 
have  taken  it  under  combined  Semitic  and  Aryan  influence. 

t  I.e.,  the  post-exilic  Jews.  The  Hebrews  before  the  exile  must  be 
classed  as  barbarians,  along  with  the  Phoenicians. 

%  See  Robertson  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel;  Cornill,  Der  israel. 
Prophetismus ;  Wellhausen,  Hist,  of  Israel  and  Judah  and  Prolego- 
mena zw  Gesch.  Israels, 


78  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

to  monotheism,  and  to  an  ideal  of  personal  righteous- 
ness, as  the  sacrifice  which  God  demands  of  men.* 
Righteousness  is  the  mark  of  civic  culture. 

About  621  B.C.,  a  short  time  before  the  Babylonish 
Captivity,  King  Josiah,  under  the  combined  influence 
of  priests  and  prophets,  gave  official  recognition  and 
effect  to  the  teachings  of  the  latter  by  the  promulga- 
tion of  a  code  of  laws,  which  our  best  critics  recognize 
as,  in  the  main,  identical  with  the  book  of  Deuteron- 
omy, f  During  the  Captivity  this  book  became  the 
programme  and  bond  of  union  of  that  "remnant"  of 
the  Jews,  which  sought  to  remain  "  the  servant  of  Yah- 
weh  "  (the  Lord),  and  when,  in  458,  a  portion  of  these 
"  returned,"  and,  along  with  their  poorer  brethren,  who 
had  not  been  carried  away,  restored  the  Jewish  nation, 
as  a  theocratic  polity,  under  the  suzerainty  of  Persia, 
the  book  was  enlarged,  by  the  addition  of  other  elements, 
into  the  "  Law  "  (Torcih,  the  Pentateuch),  and  made  the 
basis  of  the  new  institution.  The  "  word  of  the  Lord  " 
being  now  regarded  as  closed,  no  more  prophets  arose. 
Their  place  was  taken  by  the  sopherim,  or  scripture- 
,  scholars,  J  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  preservation, 
1  nterpretation,  and  teaching  of  the  Law  in  connection 
with  the  different  synagogues  which  arose  at  this  time. 
Thus  came  into  existence  the  letJi-hammidrash^  pr 
*  house  of  instruction,"  which  did  so  much  for  the  re- 
igious  and  moral  culture  of  the  Jews,  but  which,  at 

*  See  Hoshea  VL  6 ;  Isaiah  I.  11-17 ;  and  of.  1  Kings  HI.  1-3 ;  2 
Kings  XXIH. ;  Amos  V.  21  seq.;  Psalm  L.  8-15. 

t  See  Canon  Driver,  Grit,  and  Exeget.  Commentary  on  Deuter- 
onomy. 

I  Not  "scribes,"  as  our  versions  have  it.  See  Schtlrer,  Hist,  of  the 
Jews  in  the  Time  ofjesut  Christ,  II.,  i,  306-79. 

§  See  Schtlrer,  ut  sup.,  II.,  ii.,  52-89. 


CIVIC   EDUCATION  79 

the  same  time,  trained  them  to  a  punctilious  legal  for- 
malism, fatal  to  free  development,  and  conducive  to 
exclusiveness,  dogmatism,  and  fanaticism.* 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  all  Jewish  instruction  had 
for  its  subject  the  Law,  and  was  therefore  religious  and 
moral  in  its  character.  It  set  out  with  the  assumption 
that  all  important  truth  had  been  divinely  revealed  in 
the  Law,  and  had  only  to  fte  understood  in  order  to 
meet  all  exigencies.  Hence,  every  line,  word,  and  let- 
ter of  it  was  submitted  to  microscopic  investigation,  and 
made  to  yield  a  maximum  of  meaning,  sometimes  by 
methods  altogether  unpermitted.  "Later  Judaism," 
says  Schurer  (II.,  i.,  348),  "  discovered  that  there  is  a 
fourfold  meaning  of  Scripture,  which  is  indicated  by  the 
word  D11B  (pardes,  paradise),  viz.,  (1)  peshat,  the  sim- 
ple or  literal  meaning;  (2)  remez  (suggestion),  the 
meaning  arbitrarily  imported  into  it;  (3)  derush  (in- 
vestigation), the  meaning  deduced  by  investigation; 
(4)  sod  (mystery),  the  theosophic  meaning."  f  We  need 
not  wonder  that  "  Jewish  exegesis  .  .  .  degenerated 
into  the  most  capricious  puerilities.  From  its  stand- 
point, e.g.,  the  transposition  of  words  into  numbers, 
and  numbers  into  words,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
the  most  astonishing  disclosures,  was  by  no  means 
strange,  and  quite  in  accordance  with  its  spirit."  J  The 
result  of  Scripture-interpretation  by  these  methods  has 
been  handed  down  to  us  in  the  Talmud  (=  instruction), 

*  See  Schlirer,  ut  sup.,  II.,  ii.,  90-135,  and  cf.  Paul.  Ep.  to  Galatians, 
III.,  19-29. 

t  Cf.  Dante,  Convivio,  II.,  i.,  and  cf.  Letter  to  Can.  Grande,  §  7.  On 
the  mischievous  effect  of  allegorical  interpretation  see  Bigg.  Christian 
Platonists  of  A  lexandria,  pp.  134-51 ;  Hatch,  Influence  of  Greek  Ideas 
and  Usages  upon  the  Christian  Church,  pp.  58-85. 

J  Schurer,  ut  sup.,  II.,  i.,  348,  349. 


80  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION" 

or,  rather,  Talmuds,*  which  have  been  the  basis  of  Jew- 
ish life  and  scholarship  for  many  hundred  years,  f 

Jewish  education,  though  defective  both  in  matter 
and  in  method,  and  tending  to  fetter  rather  than  free 
the  mind,  achieved  four  valuable  results:  (1)  it  devel- 
oped a  taste  for  close,  critical  study;  (2)  it  sharpened 
the  wits,  even  to  the  point  of  perversity;  (3)  it  encour- 
aged a  reverence  for  law  and  produced  desirable  social 
conduct;  and  (4)  it  formed  a  powerful  bond  of  union 
among  the  Jewish  people.  We  need  not  wonder  that 
it  stood  high  in  their  estimation,  that  all  studied  who 
could,  and  that  scholars  were  highly  honored.  The 
pupils  of  the  sopherim  were  the  Pharisees  (perushim  = 
Separatists),  who  in  the  centuries  before  Christ  came 
to  be  sharply  distinguished  from  the  Sadducees,  or 
priestly  party,  on  whom  the  Law  sat  lightly.  %  When, 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  temple  worship 
ceased,  the  Sadducees  disappeared,  and  Judaism  has 
ever  since  been  represented  by  the  Pharisees,  devoted 
to  the  study  of  the  Law.§ 

As  to  the  manner  in  which  instruction  was  given, 

*  The  midrashim  of  the  sopherim  were  of  two  kinds,  halarha,  or  legal 
deductions  from  the  Law,  and  haggada,  or  expansion  of  it  in  the  form  of 
religious  and  moral  legends.  In  the  second  century  of  our  era,  the  former 
was  codified  into  the  Mishna  of  Judah  hannasi,  with  its  sixty  (63)  tracts. 
This  again  became  the  basis  of  two  Talmuds, the  Palestinian  (A.D.  350±) 
and  the  Babylonian  (A.D.  550±),  the  latter  being  four  times  as  long  as 
the  former  and  much  more  complete.  Both  contain  halachic  and  hag- 
gadic  elements,  and  are  wonderful,  and  rather  chaotic  accumulations  of 
rabbinical  subtlety  and  fancy. 

t  See  Schllrer,  ut  sup.,  I.,  L,  119-44;  Em.  Deutsch,  The  Talmud,  in 
Literary  Remains. 

J  See  Schttrer,  ut  sup.,  II. ,  ii,  1-43. 

§  In  its  narrower  and  original  sense,  the  Law  is  the  Pentateuch ;  but 
the  term  is  often  made  to  include  the  later  additions  made  to  the  Script- 
ure canon — the  Prophets,  earlier  and  later,  and  the  Kethubim  or  Writ- 
ings (wrongly  rendered  hagiographa) — in  fact  the  entire  Old  Testament, 
See  Canon  Ryle,  The  Old  Testament  Canon. 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  81 

we  read:  "  The  master  sat  at  the  uppermost  place,  sur- 
rounded by  his  pupils,  like  a  crown  on  the  head,  in 
order  that  every  pupil  might  see  and  hear  him.     The 
master  did  not  sit  on  a  stool  and  the  pupils  on  the 
ground;   but  all  sat  either  on  stools  or  on  the  ground. 
Formerly  it  was  the  custom  for  the  master  to  sit,  and 
the  pupils  to  stand;  but,  shortly  before  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  it  was   arranged  for  both    pupils  and 
teachers  to  sit."    Instruction  was  carried  on  apparently  I 
by  the  dialectic,  or  conversational,  method,  and  the  I 
Talmud   enjoins   that   "  the   pupils'   questions   should  I 
never  become  too  much  for  the  teacher."  *    We  find  a  | 
typical  example  of  this  method  in  the  Fons  Vitce  of 
the  Jewish  philosopher  Ibn  Gabirol  (Avicebron),  who 
lived  in  the  eleventh  century.    It  is  said  of  Jesus  that 
he  was  found  in  the  temple,  "sitting  in  the  midst  of 
the  doctors,  both  hearing  them,  and  asking  them  ques- 
tions." f     Neither  teacher  nor  pupils,  it  should  seem,  \ 
brought  any  text-book  to  the  school;    both  depended  \ 
upon  their  memories  for  the  texts  to  be  discussed. 
"  The  education  for  which  general  provision  was  made 
in  the  schools  was  primarily  and  almost  exclusively  relig- 
ious in  character,  and  largely  the  work  would  be  learning 
ly  rote  Biblical  verses  and  the  dicta  of  the  rabbis  which 
form  the  *  oral  law '  [halacha] .     These  dicta     .     .     . 
the  reduction  of  which  to  writing  was  prohibited,  and 
the  Bible,  were  the  stock  in  trade  of  the  scholar.    The 
storing  of  the  memory  would  be  the  first  concern;  the 

*For  the  whole  of  this  section,  see  Spiers,  The  School  System  of  the 
Talmud^  excellently  reviewed  in  Intern  at.  Jour,  of  Ethics  for  April, 
1899,  pp.  404-6.  STRASSBURGER,  Oesch.  der  Erziehung  und  des  Unter- 
richts  bei  den  Israeliten. 

t  Luke  II.  46. 

6 


82  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

cultivation  of  intelligence  and  acuteness  would  come 
somewhat  later,  and,  from  a  certain  point  of  view,  would 
be  of  secondary  importance.  The  Talmudic  methods* 
of  education  have  primarily  the  storing  of  the  memory 
in  view.  One  of  the  most  interesting  and  striking 
features  of  the  Talmudic  literature  is  the  keen  psycho- 
logical insight  shown  by  the  rabbis,  f  We  can  have  no 
clearer  exemplification  of  this  insight  than  the  com- 
pleteness with  which  they  recognized  the  conditions 
most  favorable  for  retention,  and  the  skill  with  which 
they  sought  to  secure  these  conditions.  They  sought 
to  secure  the  maximum  of  intensity  for  the  impressions 
by  the  simultaneous  affection  of  several  senses.  The 
word  was  not  only  to  be  heard,  but  also  spoken  and 
read.  Visual,  auditory,  and  muscular  memory  were  all 
called  upon  to  assist  in  the  retention  of  the  impression. 
The  aid  of  musical  memory,  also,  was  enlisted;  for  the 
scholars  sang  or  chanted  their  lessons.  Great  insistence 
was  laid  upon  adequate  and  constant  repetition;  and, 
above  all,  every  device  was  adopted  to  secure  the  full 
attention  of  the  scholar  by  rousing  his  interest.  In  the 
case  of  more  advanced  scholars,  the  subject  for  which 
they  asserted  preference  was  alone  to  be  selected.  Of 
great  interest  in  this  connection  is  the  system  of  mne- 
monics employed  and  recommended  in  the  Talmud.  The 
scholars  are  exhorted  to  make  constant  use  of  symbols, 
catch-words,  and  other  mnemonic  devices.  In  the 
tractate  '  Shabbath '  an  interesting  description  occurs 
of  a  lesson  on  the  alphabet.  Words  are  selected  of 

*  It  is  needless  to  say  that  these  methods  antedate  and  underlie  the 
Talmud. 

t  Name  replacing  the  earlier  sopherim.  See  Schurer,  ut  sup.,  II., 
i. ,  315. 


CIVIC   EDUCATION  83 

which  the  consecutive  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  the 
initials,*  and  the  words  are  grouped  in  easily  remem- 
bered phrases  conveying  some  moral  injunction.  Few 
would  expect  to  find  in  the  Talmud  the  prototype  of 
the  familiar  *  A  was  an  Archer,'  etc."  f  The  fact  is 
that  Jewish  methods  of  education  passed  from  the 
Jewish  schools  of  Alexandria  into  the  Christian  "  cate- 
chetical schools,"  and  thence  into  the  schools  of  the 
Middle  Age  and  of  modern  times. 

It  seems  that  the  beth-hammidrash  did  not  concern 
itself  with  primary  education,  which  was  given  at  home 
by  the  head  of  the  family.  Soon  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  however  (A.D.  70),  Joshua  ben  Gamla 
caused  schools  for  children  over  six  to  be  established  in 
every  town  and  village,  and  made  attendance  compul- 
sory. These  schools  often  sat  in  the  open  air,  notwith- 
standing which  they  were  highly  appreciated.  The 
compiler  of  the  Mishna  said:  "The  world  exists  only 
by  the  breath  of  school-children; "  and  we  read  in  the 
Talmud,  "  A  town  without  a  school  and  school-children 
should  be  demolished."  "  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  be- 
cause there  ceased  to  be  schools  and  school-children 
there."  \  Such  being  the  attitude  of  the  Jews  toward 
education,  we  need  not  wonder  that  "they  searched 
from  Dan  to  Beersheba,  but  found  not  an  illiterate  per- 
son; from  Gabath  unto  Antiphorus,  and  could  discover 
neither  male  nor  female  who  was  not  well  acquainted 
with  the  laws  of  the  ritual  and  ceremonial  observance."  § 

*  There  are  even  "alphabetical  psalms"  (9,  10,  25,  37,  111,  112,  119, 
145).     See  Cheyne,  Orig.  of  Psalter,  pp.  51,  228,  etc. 
t  The  prototype  of  "  The  House  that  Jack  Built "  also  occurs  in  it. 
J  Spiers,  School  System  of  the  Talmud,  pp.  1  seq, 
§  Ibid.,  p.  19. 


84  THE   HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

Jewish  education  being  religious  and  moral,  great 
stress  was  laid  upon  the  character,  and  especially  the 
piety,  of  the  teachers,  and  the  demeanor  of  the  pupils. 
Of  the  former  the  highest  worth  and  dignity  were  de- 
manded. Their  work  was  regarded  as  divine  work  and 
themselves  almost  as  divine  agents.  Neither  youthful, 
unmarried,  nor  quick-tempered  persons  were  allowed  to 
teach.  As  to  the  pupils,  the  Talmud  tells  us:  "All 
kinds  of  work  which  a  servant  does  for  his  master,  must 
a  pupil  do  for  his  instructor,  except  the  taking  off  and 
mtting  on  of  shoes."  The  pupils'  virtues  were  modesty, 
espect,  and  perseverance.  Teachers  made  every  effort 
o  enter  into  friendly  relations  with  their  pupils,  and 
o  study  their  individual  characteristics.  They  arrived 
it  the  following  generalization,  among  others:  "Four 
(dispositions  are  found  among  those  who  sit  for  in- 
struction hefore  the  wise.  They  correspond,  respectively, 
to  a  sponge,  a  funnel,  a  strainer,  and  a  sieve;  the  sponge 
imbihes  all;  the  funnel  receives  at  one  end  and  dis- 
charges at  the  other;  the  strainer  suffers  the  wine  to 
pass  through,  but  retains  the  dregs;  and  the  sieve  re- 
moves the  bran,  but  retains  the  flour."  Again,  a  famous 
rabbi  said:  "I  have  learnt  much  from  my  teachers, 
more  from  my  school-fellows,  but  most  of  all  from  my 
pupils."  Such  was  the  spirit  of  Jewish  education. 

It  is  easy  to  point  out  defects  in  this  education,  nar- 
rowness, formalism,  virtual  hostility  to  science,  self- 
consciousness,  etc.;  but,  when  we  consider  its  effects 
upon  the  Jewish  people,  and  how  it  not  only  held  them 
together,  but  enabled  them  to  maintain  a  struggle  of 
unparalleled  severity  for  two  thousand  years,  and  finally 
brought  them  out  conquerors,  we  cannot  but  accord  it 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  85 

our  heartiest  admiration.  It  was  their  solace  in  the 
darkest  of  times,  and  there  is  no  period  which  cannot 
show  distinguished  rabbis  keeping  alive  the  study  of  the 
Law  and  the  taste  for  learning.  Thus  it  came  to  pass 
that  the  Jews  were  the  great  purveyors  of  learning  and 
the  chief  translators  of  the  Middle  Age,  and  that  even 
to-day  many  of  them  count  among  our  most  distin- 
guished scholars.* 

One  lesson,  above  all,  Jewish  education  has  to  teach 
us,  viz.,  that  the  most  important  element  in  all  educa- 
tion  is  moral  discipline.  The  Greek,  with  his  art  and 
his  philosophy,  and  the  Eoman,  with  his  law  and  his 
statesmanship,  have  vanished  from  the  face  of  the  earth; 
but  the  Jew,  with  his  moral  discipline,  his  Torah,  and 
his  Talmud,  is  still  with  us,  as  strong  and  as  ready  fory 
life's  struggle  as  ever. 

It  may  be  well  to  conclude  this  section  by  replying 
to  a  possible  objection.  It  may  be  said  that  the  Jews 
never  founded  a  free  state  or  rose  to  civic  freedom, 
whence  they  ought  to  rank  as  barbarians.  The  answer 
is  that,  under  the  Maccabees,  they  did  found  a  free 
state,  which  lasted  over  a  hundred  years  (165-63  B.C.); 
and  that,  although  its  theocratic  constitution,  claiming 
divine  origin,  was  barbarian  in  form,  it  was,  in  reality, 
civic,  the  laws  depending  for  their  adoption  upon  the 
free  moral  judgment  of  the  people,  f  The  Jews,  like 
all  Semites,  place  the  origin  of  moral  authority  outside 
of  themselves;!  but  it  does  not  cease  to  be  moral  au- 

*  See  Steinschneider,  Die  hebrae.  Uebersetzungen  des  Miltelalters. 

t  See  Nehemiah  VIIL  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  Law  contained  in 
its  sacrificial  system,  demanded  by  the  uncultured  masses,  remnants  of 
savagery  even,  as,  indeed,  was  recognized  by  the  great  prophets.  See 
Hoshea  VI.  6  ;  Isaiah  I.  11-17,  and  cf.  Psalm  L.  8-15. 

t  See  Jerem.  XXXI.  33;  Pa.  LI.  10;  cf.  Martineau,  The  Seat  of  Au- 
thority in  Religion. 


86  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

thority  on  that  account.  The  practice,  however,  has 
this  disadvantage,  conspicuous  enough  in  Jewish  history, 
that  the  laws,  being  regarded  as  divine,  cannot  be  abro- 
gated or  amended,  but  must  be  interpreted  with  subtle 
and  often  perverse  ingenuity  in  order  to  keep  pace  with 
the  advance  of  moral  judgment.  Hence  the  Talmud. 
The  civic  consciousness  of  the  Jews  centred  in  three 
conceptions:  (1)  an  omnipotent,  creator  God,  who  had 
chosen  the  Jews  as  his  vicegerents  on  earth;  (2)  a  Mes- 
siah to  restore  them  to  this  exceptional  position,  which, 
through  unfaithfulness,  they  had  lost;  (3)  Holiness  on 
their  part,  as  the  condition  of  this  restoration.  Thus 
their  supreme  ideal  took  the  form  of  a  "kingdom  of 
heaven"  upon  earth.  After  the  rise  of  the  Maccabees, 
they  came  to  believe  that  the  citizens  of  this  kingdom 
would  be  immortal  and  that  the  righteous  dead  would 
rise  to  share  in  it.  It  was  then  for  the  first  time  that 
they  began  to  entertain  notions  of  personal  immortality,* 
and  thus  to  pave  the  way  for  the  Christian  ideal  of  a 
kingdom  in  heaven — an  ideal  in  which  the  three  central 
conceptions  of  Judaism  appear  as  the  three  persons  of 
the  Trinity. 

(2)  Greece 

To  Babylonia,  far  more  than  to  Egypt,  we  owe  the  art  and  learn- 
ing of  the  Greeks.  It  was  from  the  East,  not  from  Egypt,  that 
Greece  derived  her  architecture,  her  sculpture,  her  science,  her 
philosophy,  her  mathematical  knowledge,  in  a  word,  her  intellect- 
ual life. — RAWI.INSON,  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  III.,  p.  76. 

Except  the  blind  forces  of  Nature,  nothing  moves  in  this  world 
which  is  not  Greek  in  its  origin. — HENRY  SUMNER  MAINE. 

*  Daniel  XH.  2,  3 ;  Book  of  Enoch  (Charles's  Edition),  pp.  52,  57, 
»nd  passim. 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  87 

And  what  in  restless  seeming  balanceth 
Do  ye  make  steady  with  enduring  thoughts. 

— GOETHE,  Faust,  Prol.  in  Heaven,  sab  fin, 

Forevermore, 

With  grander  resurrection  than  was  feigned 
Of  Attila's  fierce  Huns,  the  soul  of  Greece 
Conquers  the  bulk  of  Persia. 

— GEORGE  ELIOT,  Spanish  Gypsy. 

The  Jews,  though  rising  to  the  civic  ideal  of  indi- 
vidual worth,  self-determination,  and  responsibility, 
never  attained  to  that  of  complete  moral  autonomy. 
Their  law-giving  Power  and  their  Law  both  remained 
external,  being  obeyed  rather  as  authorities  than  as 
embodiments  of  reason.*  Though  the  same  thing  is 
largely  true  of  the  Greeks  in  the  earlier  part  of  their 
historic  career,  yet,  in  course  of  time,  they  rose  to  the 
higher  position.  Indeed,  it  is  just  this  rise  that  gives 
them  their  unique  importance  in  history. 

The  Greeks,  or,  as  they  called  themselves,  Hellenes, 
resembled  in  many  respects  the  Iranians.  In  prehistoric 
times,  after  separating  from  the  other  Aryans,  they  oc- 
cupied for  a  considerable  period  the  mountainous  regions 
lying  between  the  steppes  of  Russia  and  the  plain  of 
Thessaly.  Here,  divided  into  several  tribes,  they  led  a 
free,  hardy  life,  developing  that  courage  and  that  fine 
physique  for  which  they  afterward  became  so  famous, 
and  gradually  encroaching  upon  the  country  to  the 
south  of  them.  This  country,  in  very  ancient  times, 
had  been  occupied  by  a  tower-building  Turanian  race, 
later  known  as  Pelasgians  (Pelishtim,  Philistines)  or 
Tyrrhenians  (Etrurians  f) — a  race  with  a  gloomy  relig- 

*  See,  however,  Jerem.  XXXI.  33  eeq. 

t  The  Greeks  always  called  the  Etrurians  Tyrrhenians. 


88  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

ion,  embodied  in  such  chthonic  deities  as  Hades,  De- 
meter,  Persephone,  Dionysus,  Castor,  and  Polydeuces.* 
At  a  time  near  the  dawn  of  history  these  Pelasgians 
were  conquered  and  driven  into  mountainous  or  barren 
regions  by  a  number  of  tribes  closely  akin  to  the  Phoe- 
nicians and  Hebrews — Semites  who  brought  with  them 
their  Baals  and  Baalaths:  Apollo,  Poseidon,  Heracles, 
Ares,  Hermes,  Cybele,  Hera,  Athena,  Aphrodite,  Ar- 
temis, etc.f  In  course  of  time  these  tribes  united  into 
an  empire  under  the  rule  of  the  Pelopids,  in  the  days 
of  the  last  of  whom,  Agamemnon,  took  place  the  great 
struggle,  called  the  Trojan  war,  which  greatly  enfeebled 
the  nation.  Taking  advantage  of  this,  the  Aryan  Hel- 
lenes, in  three  tribes — ^olians,  Dorians,  and  lonians — 
came  down  and  conquered  it,  very  much  as  the  Jutes, 
Angles,  and  Saxons  conquered  Britain  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury of  our  era.  It  is  with  this  event,  which  seems  to 
have  occurred  about  1100-1000  B.C.,  that  Greek  history 
proper  begins. 

It  is  generally  said  that  the  earliest  accounts  we  have 
of  the  Greeks  come  to  us  from  the  Homeric  poems; 
but  this  is  not  strictly  true.  The  civilization  described 
by  Homer  is  not  Greek,  or  even  Aryan,  but  Semitic  and 
Turanian.  He  writes,  indeed,  in  Greek;  but  his  myths 
and  legends,  his  gods  and  heroes,  are  mainly  Semitic.  J 
The  names  of  the  subordinate  personages,  which  he 
himself  invented,  have  all  Greek  etymologies;  whereas 

*  All  these,  but  the  first,  were  called  by  the  later  Greeks  oi  jtevoAot  Otoi, 
the  Great  Gods,  or,  properly,  the  Old  Gods — Kabiri.  The  Arab.  Kabir 
means  both  great  and  old.  Hades  was  later  called  the  Pelasgic  Zens. 

t  These  names,  which  have  no  etymology  in  any  Aryan  language,  are 
easily  explainable  in  Semitic. 

1 1  am  well  aware  that  this  is  not  the  ordinary  view ;  but  I  feel  sure 
that  it  is  correct. 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  89 

those  of  the  principal  characters,  which  belonged  to  the 
original  myths  and  legends,  are  plainly  Semitic.  More- 
over, the  art-objects  found  in  recent  years  at  Mycena?, 
Spata,  Menidhi,  and  other  places  are  at  once  Homeric 
non-Greek.  The  fact  is,  the  Homeric  poems  were 
•  composed  at  a  time  when  the  civilization  of  Greece  was 
still  mainly  Semitic,  and  only  slightly  modified  by 
Aryan  influence.  It  took  some  three  hundred  years, 
forming  a  kind  of  "  dark  age,"  for  the  two  elements  to 
find  their  proper  relations.  At  the  end  of  that  time, 
the  Hellenes  had  adopted  much  of  the  higher  civiliza- 
tion of  the  Semites,  especially  their  gods  and  religion, 
but  had  greatly  modified  and  elevated  all,  at  the  same 
time  retaining  a  distinct  social  and  political  superiority, 
and  imposing  their  language  on  the  whole  people.* 
J>  The  Greeks,  then,  when,  about  800-700  B.C.,  they 
began  to  play  a  distinct  part  in  history,  were  an  Aryan 
people,  which  had,  in  large  degree,  adopted  and  modi- 
fied an  older  Semitic  civilization,  itself  containing  cer- 
tain elements  borrowed  from  a  still  older  Turanian 
culture.  As  they  spread  themselves  into  the  mountain- 
ous regions  they  came  into  direct  contact  with  the 
Turanians,  and  were  considerably  influenced  by  them.f 
But  everywhere  the  Hellenic  tendency  to  measure, 
method,  and  order  made  itself  felt.  About  800  B.C.,  the 
Boeotian  Hesiod  brought  order  into  the  chaotic  pantheon 
of  Homer  by  introducing  among  its  members  the  family 

*  It  is  a  general  rule  that,  whenever  Semites  and  Aryans  combine,  the 
former  supply  the  religion  £the  supernatural),  the  latter  the  art,  science, 
language,  and  statesmanship  (the  natural).  The  great  body  of  Aryans 
to-day  profess  Turano-Semitic  religions. 

t  It  is  noteworthy  that,  while  in  the  Homeric  poems  the  Turanian 
gods  (see  p.  88)  play  little  part,  they  become  prominent  as  soon  as 
Aryanism  gets  the  upper  hand.  Tragedy,  comedy,  and  all  the  "mys- 
teries "  are  connected  with  them ;  indeed,  belong  to  them. 


90  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

tie.    In  Homer,  none  of  the  gods  but  Zeus  is  married 
w,  or  has  a  household;  in  Hesiod,  they  are  nearly  all  mar- 
ried and  have  families.*    His  Theogony  is  the  earliest 
attempt  in  history  at  a  reflective,  systematic,  teachable 

theology,  f 

If,  now,  it  be  asked  why  the  Greeks  did  not,  like  the 
Iranians,  succumb  to  military  despotism  and  super- 
natural priestcraft  (see  p.  73),  the  answer  is  easy.  The 
Iranians  were  subject  to  the  Semites  before  they  were 
their  masters,  and  the  Semites  to  whom  they  were  sub- 
ject had  accepted,  as  agents  of  the  Unseen,  the  Tura- 
nian priesthood.  The  Greeks,  on  the  contrary,  were 
never  subject  to  the  Semites,  and  the  Semites  whom 
they  conquered,  and  whose  civilization  they  adopted,  had 
never  submitted  to  the  Turanian  priesthood.  Thus, 
among  the  Greeks,  the  agricultural  or  producing  class 
held  its  own  and  found  a  mouthpiece  in  Hesiod.  At 
the  same  time,  the  heroic  themes  and  Aryanized  heroes 
and  heroines  of  Homer — Hector  and  Achilles,  Penelope, 
Andromache  and  Nausicaa — secured  him  an  abiding- 
place  in  the  hearts  of  the  whole  people.  In  this  way 
the  Greeks  escaped  the  tyranny  of  the  priesthood  alto- 
gether, and  that  of  the  military  class  to  a  large  extent. 
It  is  this  fact,  more  than  anything  else,  that  enabled 
them  to  rise  to  the  consciousness  of  free  individuality 
and  to  introduce  civic  life  into  the  world. 

*  This  is  an  Aryan  trait,  with  profound  implications.  Semitic  gods 
have  "  faces  "  (Exod.  XXXIII.  14),  but  are  not  married. 

t  Hesiod  is  the  earliest  Greek  schoolmaster,  instructor  in  the  arts  of 
peace.  His  Theogony  and  his  Works  and  Days,  a  sort  of  versified 
Farmer's  Manual,  are  the  earliest  school-books.  See  Heraclitus,  Frag. 
35  (Edit.  Bywater).  In  the  Theogony,  ZCUB,  though  evolved  like  every- 
thing else,  is  the  supreme  god,  and  stands  for  Aryan  supremacy,  order, 
and  family  life.  At  the  same  time  he  has  borrowed  many  Semitic  traits, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  Crete. 


f/"  CIVIC  EDUCATION  91 

The  education  current  in  Homer's  time  is  summed 
up  in  the  words  of  Phcenix,  the  guardian  of  Achilles: 
"  For  this  end  he  [Peleus]  sent  me  forth  to  teach  thee 
all  these  things:  to  be  a  speaker  of  words  and  a  doer 
of  deeds."  *  It  was  wholly  practical,  and  acquired  in 
the  commerce  of  life,  often,  no  doubt,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  some  skilled  tutor  like  Phoenix,  who  was,  prob- 
ably, a  Phoenician.  There  were  no  schools  in  those 
days,  because  there  were  no  books.  Though  letters 
were  known  to  the  Phoenicians  and  to  other  inhabitants 
of  Western  Asia  long  before  the  date  of  Homer,  there 
is  no  clear  proof  that  he  was  acquainted  with  them.f 
In  spite  of  this,  the  Homeric  world  is  a  highly  educated 
one,  perhaps  the  highest  type  of  civilization  without 
book-learning  that  is  known  to  us.  So  true  is  this  that 
we,  the  people  of  to-day,  find  ourselves  far  more  at  home 
in  it  than  in  the  less  remote  world  of  the  Middle  Age. 
Homer's  Achaians,|  and  even  his  Trojans,  though 
gifted  with  but  little  knowledge,  are  far  advanced  in 
ethical  culture  and  refinement.  Bravery,  prudence, 
truthfulness,  loyalty,  kindliness,  hospitality,  female 
chastity,  are  among  the  virtues  admired  and  practised 
by  them.  Agamemnon  and  O'dysseus,  Achilles  and 
Patroclus,  Priam  and  Hector,  Andromache  and  Penel- 
ope, Arete  and  Nausicaa,  not  to  mention  the  less  worthy 
Menelaus  and  Helen,  are  characters  which  the  world 
refuses  to  forget.  The  Achaian  family  and  social  life 
is  sweet  and  tender.  Woman  is  free  and  occupies  a  high 

*  Iliad,  IX.,  438  eeq. 

t  On  the  mjjaaTa  KvypS.  of  Iliad,  VI.,  168,  see  Jebb,  Introd.  to  Homer, 
p.  112.  The  oldest  Greek  inscriptions  do  not  go  further  back  than  the 
seventh  century  B.C. 

%  Homer  calls  the  inhabitants  of  Greece  Achaians,  Argeians,  and 
Danaans,  never  Hellenes.  See  Gladstone,  Juventus  Mundi,  pp.  30-72. 


92  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

place.  Polygamy  is  unknown.*  Slavery  exists;  but  the 
slave  is  a  member  of  the  family,  and  well  treated. 
Though  there  is  a  trait  of  savagery  in  the  Achaian  char- 
acter, we  always  feel  that  the  men  and  women  are  gen- 
tlemen and  ladies.  They  are  all  intensely  human  and 
have  that  most  admirable  of  all  qualities,  perfect  sim- 
plicity. There  is  no  more  perfect  gentleman  than  the 
Phseacian  Alcinous,  no  more  perfect  lady  than  his 
daughter  Nausicaa.  Though  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
superstition,  it  is  never  of  the  craven  sort,  while  there 
is  much  genuine  piety  and  moral  reverence  for  the  gods.f 
These  are  not  separated,  as  among  oriental  nations,  by 
any  wide  gulf  from  man.  They  are  stronger  and  wiser, 
indeed,  but  they  do  not  belong  to  a  different  race.J 
Zeus  is  "father  of  gods  and  men,"  and  all  are  equally 
subject  to  Fate,  that  dark,  irresistible  power  which  sets 
a  limit  to  all  caprice.§  Belief  in  immortality  exists; 
but,  as  among  the  pre-exilic  Hebrews,  it  is  vague  and 
gloomy.  The  shade  of  the  great  Achilles  declares  that 
he  "  would  rather  be  a  serf  and  a  thrall  to  another,  to 
a  man  with  no  land  of  his  own  and  little  means,  than 
rule  over  all  the  wasted  dead/'  ||  The  works  of  art 
mentioned  or  depicted  by  Homer  show  considerable  ad- 
vance, but  seem  to  be  mostly  of  Phoenician  origin.  It  is 

*  Among  the  Trojans,  Priam  is  a  polygamist  (Iliad,  XXHI.,  495-97). 
In  spite  of  characters  like  Hector  and  Andromache,  Trojan  civilization 
is  inferior  to  Achaian. 

t  "  All  men  hunger  after  gods,"  says  the  son  of  Nestor  (Odyss. ,  III.,  48). 
"Jove  will  never  be  an  abettor  of  liars,"  says  Agamemnon  (Iliad.  IV., 
235). 

t  See  Schiller,  Die  Ootter  Oriechenlands. 

5  See  Gladstone,  Juventut  Mundi,  pp.  358  seq.  Cf.  Gilbert,  Griech- 
ische  Gotterlehre,  pp.  112  seq. 

|  Odygs.,  XL,  489  seq.;  cf.  Iliad,  XXHL,  100  seq.  The  Hades  of  the 
Greeks  in  an  exact  counterpart  of  the  Sheol  of  the  Hebrews  and  is.  doubt- 
less, borrowed.  Cf.  Phases  of  Ancient  Feeling  towards  Death,  note  B 
to  Geddes's  Phcedo  of  Plato. 


T 


CIVIC   EDUCATION       .  93 

curious  that  he  nowhere  mentions  a  statue  of  god  or 
man,  and  rarely  a  temple. 

Gladstone  has  entitled  a  work  on  Homer  Juventus 
Mundi,  and  there  is  a  general  impression  that  the  civil- 
ization depicted  by  Homer  is  young  and  vigorous;  but 
a  closer  study  of  his  works  shows  that  it  was,  on  the 
contrary,  verging  to  decline.  It  may  be  said  to  have 
come  to  an  end  about  the  date  of  the  first  Olympiad, 
B.C.,  when  Greek  civilization  proper  began  —  a  civ- 
ilization in  which  the  material  was  mainly  due  to  Sem- 
itism,  the  form  and  the  ideals  to  Hellenism. 

The  Hellenes  set  out  on  their  political  career  with 
two  new  elements,  a  Hellenized  Semitic  alphabet,  ex- 
pressing vowels,  as  well  as  consonants  —  hence  com- 
pletely phonetic;  and  the  poetry  of  Homer,  of  which 
the  materials  —  the  myths,  legends,  gods,  and  heroes  — 
are  Semitic,  while  the  form  and  the  ideals  are  purely 
Aryan.*  It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the  value  of  these 
elements.  The  use  of  letters  necessitated  the  establish- 
ment of  schools,  and,  as  the  priests  had  no  recognized 
standing,  and  no  special  connection  with  learning,  these 
fell  into  the  hands  of  laymen  —  a  new  event  in  history, 
and  one  of  infinite  significance.  The  Homeric  poems, 
though  never  endowed  with  canonical  authority,  be- 
came the  property  of  the  whole  people,  the  great  text- 
book in  education,  presenting  types  of  individual  virt- 
ue, manly  and  womanly,  that  could  not  fail  to  be  fatal 
to  despotism  and  conducive  to  liberty.  The  Homeric 
heroes  and  heroines  became  the  ideals  of  the  Greek  peo- 

*  Cf.  Tennyson's  Idyls  of  the  King,  in  which  the  material  is  due  to 
the  conquered  Celts,  while  the  form  is  English.     The  word  "Homer" 
means  hostage,  and  may  point  to  a  fact. 


94  THE   HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

pie.  Thus  the  harmless-seeming  creations  of  the  poet's 
fancy  became  powerful  agents  in  shaping  actual  life  to 
noble  issues. 

Greek  education,  from  the  first,  had  for  its  aim  indi- 
vidual Excellence  or  Worth  (aperrj),*  often  named,  from 
"its  two  component  elements,  Fair-and-good-ness  (KO\O- 
Kwyadta),  that  is  perfection  of  body  in  strength  and 
beauty,  and  perfection  of  soul  in  wisdom,  fortitude, 
temperance,  and  justice,  m  the  same  time,  this  ideal 
of  individual  excellence  was  never  separated  from  that 
of  public  usefulness.  Individual  worth  was  worth  for 
public  ends,  for  social  and  political  life.f  Such  edu- 
cation naturally  fell  into  two  parts,  Gymnastics  for  the 
body,  and  Music  for  the  soul.  Music  was  never  dis- 
sociated from  Poetry,  and  hence,  in  later  times,  mental 
education  broke  up  into  two  parts,  Music  proper  and 
Letters  (ypd^ara).  These  might  be  regarded  either  as 
Arts  or  Sciences.  As  arts,  they  were  used  to  purify 
or  purge  the  soul;  as  sciences,  to  instruct  or  enlighten 
it.  Hence  education  came  to  consist  of  three  parts: 
(1)  Gymnastics,  (2)  Purgation,  (3)  Instruction. 

Temporally  regarded,  Greek  or  Hellenic  education 
falls  into  two  great  periods,  the  "  Old  "  and  the  "  New," 
the  former  corresponding  to  the  theological,  the  latter 
to  the  philosophical,  phase  of  Greek  thought.  The 
"  New  Education  "  was  largely  due  to  the  efforts  of  in- 
dividual thinkers,  some  of  whom  wrote  treatises  on 

*  All  this  is  admirably  set  forth  in  Aristotle's  paean  to  Worth,  for  a 
translation  of  which  see  my  Aristotle,  p.  4. 

t  As  a  rule,  it  was  only  the  free  citizens,  the  full  burgesses,  whose  cir- 
cumstances were  such  as  to  enable  them  to  devote  their  whole  time  (ex- 
cept that  demanded  by  the  care  of  their  patrimony)  to  public  affairs, 
that  received  education.  Women,  artisans,  and  slaves  were  practically 
excluded  from  it. 


CIVIC   EDUCATION  95 

education.  After  Greece  fell  under  the  power  of  Mace- 
donia, and  her  influence  spread  over  the  great  East, 
there  arose  a  half-cosmopolitan  form  of  education, 
which  may  he  called  Hellenistic,  and  which  falls  into 
two  periods,  a  Macedonian,  proceeding  from  Alexandria, 
and  a  Roman,  proceeding  from  Eome. 

The  "  Old  Education  "  of  Greece,  which  the  Spartans 
never  abandoned,  hut  carried  to  extremes,  was  a  disr 
cipline,  intended  to  form  citizens,  god-fearing,  law-^" 
abiding,  patriotic,  brave,  and  strong.  The  state  (TTOX*?), 
of  which  the  family,  the  township  (S%/,o<?),  and  the  tribe 
(<t>v\ij)  were  component  parts,  absorbed  the  whole  man 
and  demanded  his  entire  activity.  The  scope  of  this 
education  is  admirably  stated  by  Aristophanes,  in  words 
put  into  the  mouth  of  Right  Reason:  "  When  I  was  in 
my  prime,  and  self-control  was  held  in  respect,  .  .  . 
a  child  was  not  allowed  to  be  heard  uttering  a  grumble. 
Then  all  the  boys  of  the  quarter  were  obliged  to  march, 
in  an  orderly  way  and  with  the  scantest  of  clothing, 
along  the  streets  to  the  music-master's,  and  this  they 
did,  even  if  it  snowed  like  barley-groats.  Then  they 
were  set  to  rehearse  a  song  .  .  .  either  'Pallas, 
mighty  city-stormer,'  or  '  A  shout  sounding  far,'  put- 
ting energy  into  the  melody  which  their  fathers  handed 
down.  And,  if  anyone  attempted  any  fooling,  or  any 
of  those  trills,  like  the  difficult  inflexions  a  la  Phrynis 
now  in  vogue,  he  received  a  good  thrashing  for  his 
pains,  as  having  insulted  the  Muses,  Again,  at  the 
physical  trainer's,  the  boys,  while  sitting,  were  obliged 
to  keep  their  legs  in  front  of  them.  ...  At  dinner 
they  were  not  allowed  to  pick  out  the  best  radish-head, 
or  to  snatch  away  anise  or  celery  from  their  elders,  or  to 


96  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

gourmandize  on  fish  or  field-fares,  or  to  sit  with  their 
legs  crossed.  .  .  .  Take  courage,  young  man,  and 
choose  me,  the  Better  Reason,  and  you  shall  know  how 
to  hate  the  public  square,  to  avoid  the  bath-houses,  to 
be  ashamed  of  what  is  shameful,  to  show  temper  when 
anyone  addresses  you  in  ribald  language,  to  rise  from 
your  seat  when  your  elders  approach,  and  not  to  be  a 
lubber  to  your  own  parents,  or  to  do  any  other  unseemly 
thing  to  mar  the  image  of  Modesty,  or  to  rush  to  the 
house  of  the  dancing  girl  .  .  .  or  to  talk  back  to  your 
father,  or,  addressing  him  as  Japhet,  to  revile  the  old 
age  which  made  the  nest  for  you.  .  .  .  Then,  fresh 
and  blooming,  you  will  spend  your  time  in  the  gymnasia, 
and  not  go  about  the  public  square,  mouthing  monstrous 
jokes,  like  the  young  men  of  to-day,  or  getting  dragged 
into  slippery,  gumshon-bamboozling  disputes;  but,  go- 
ing down  to  the  Academy,  with  some  worthy  companion 
of  your  own  age,  you  will  start  a  running-match, 
crowned  with  white  reed,  smelling  of  smilax,  leisure, 
and  deciduous  white  poplar,  rejoicing  in  the  spring, 
when  the  plane-tree  whispers  to  the  maple.  If  you  do 
the  things  which  I  enjoin,  and  give  your  mind  to  them, 
you  will  always  have  a  well-developed  chest,  a  clear 
complexion,  broad  shoulders,  and  a  short  tongue/'  * 

Modesty,  reverence,  purity,  hardihood,  strength,  self- 
control,  sociability,  and  patriotism — these  are  the  virt- 
ues which  the  Old  Education  sought  to  cultivate. 
Reading  and  writing  were,  doubtless,  taught;  but  they 
were  not  prominent.  The  literary  education  consisted 
mainly  in  singing  the  productions  of  the  old  bards, 
Homer,  Hesiod,  and  the  earlier  lyric  poets.  Religion 
accompanied  everything. 

*  Clouds,  w.  963-84;  1003-11 


CIVIC   EDUCATION  97 

The  passage  from  Aristophanes  is,  mainly,  a  descrip- 
tion of  school  education  (extending  from  the  seventh  to 
about  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  child's  life),  as  distin- 
guished from  family  education,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
from  state  (or  college)  education,  on  the  other.  Family 
education  was  in  the  hands  of  mothers  and  slaves,  and 
seems  to  have  been  humane,  but  rather  unsystematic. 
Games  and  stories,  varied  with  singing  and  discipline, 
filled  the  waking  life  of  the  child.  Correct  behavior  and 
obedience  were  strongly  insisted  upon.  In  Sparta,  state  v, 
education  began  with  the  school;  in  Athens,  only  with  ! 
the  college.  In  the  former,  both  sexes  received  state 
education;  in  Ihe  latter,  only  the  boys.  Athenian  girls 
received  no  schooling  outside  the  family;  Spartan  girls 
received  public  instruction  in  gymnastics  and  simple 
music,  just  as  the  boys  did. 

While  the  Spartan  state  was  a  sort  of  military  socialism,  ~— 
supported  by  public  slaves  (helots),  Athens  aimed  at  culti- 
vating the  arts  of  peace,  as  well  as  those  of  war.  When 
her  young  men,  about  the  age  of  fifteen,  left  school  and 
palaestra,  which  were  private  institutions,  they  entered,  or 
might  enter,*  the  public  gymnasia,  and  fit  themselves  for 
all  the  duties  of  citizenship,  legislative,  judicial,  and  mili- 
tary. Being  now  free  from  their  pedagogues,  they  could 
go  where  they  pleased  and,  in  gymnasium,  street,  agora, 
pnyx,  theatre,  etc.,  come  in  contact  with  public  men,  and 
make  themselves  acquainted  with  all  the  details  of  public 
life.  Under  these  conditions,  it  did  not  seem  necessary  to 

*  As  there  was  no  compulsion  in  the  matter,  it  was,  for  the  most  part, 
only  the  sons  of  rich  men  that  did  so ;  and  since  only  those  men  were  eli- 
gible for  public  offices  who  had  submitted  to  state  training,  it  followed 
that,  in  the  days  of  the  u  Old  Education,"  all  these  offices  were  in  the 
hands  of  the  wealthier  classes. 


98  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

provide  any  special  intellectual  training  for  them,  where- 
as their  gymnastic  exercises  were  carefully  continued.  A 
scientific  trainer  subjected  them  to  those  severer  exer- 
cises which  prepared  them  for  camp  life.*  At  the  same 
time  they  learnt  to  ride,  drive,  row,  swim,  banquet,  etc. 
Their  life  was  almost  entirely  spent  in  public  and  in  the 
open  air.  Seeing  little  of  family  life,  and  almost  nothing 
of  respectable  young  girls,  they  had  little  opportunity  of 
developing  their  affectional  nature  in  a  healthy  way,  and 
hence  were  exposed  to  grave  dangers.  This  was  the  weak- 
est side  of  Athenian  education. 

At  the  age  of  eighteen,  the  Athenian  youth  reached 
his  majority,  and  became  an  independent  citizen — we 
might  fairly  say,  took  the  degree  of  citizen.  His  name 
was  enrolled  in  the  demos  to  which  he  belonged,  he  cut 
his  long  hair,  and  put  on  the  dark  garb  of  the  citizen.  He 
was  presented  to  the  assembled  people,  furnished  with 
shield  and  spear,  and  made  to  take  the  Solonian  oath  of 
loyalty  to  the  state,  f  He  was  now  an  ephebos,  or  citizen- 
novice,  with  a  novitiate  of  two  years  of  hard  military  ser- 
vice still  before  him.  The  first  year  he  spent  near  Athens, 
drilling  and  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  military  tactics.  At 
the  close  of  it,  if  he  passed  his  examination,  he  was  drafted 
off  to  the  frontier,  to  act  as  militiaman  in  some  guard- 
house, or  as  mounted  policeman.  At  the  end  of  the  sec- 
ond, he  underwent  a  "  manhood  examination  "  (SoKifjuurta 
et9  av&pas),  and,  if  successful,  took  his  place  in  the  ranks 
of  full  citizens,  there  to  receive  his  university  education, 
which  ended  only  with  his  death.  Such  was  the  "  Old 

*  The  athletic  habit  was  not  cultivated.     The  exercises  were  running, 
leaping,  discus-throwing,  wrestling,  boxing. 
t  See  my  Aristotle,  p.  61. 


CIVIC   EDUCATION  99 

Education"  of  Greece,  the  education  which  produced 

such  men  as  Miltiades,  Themistocles,  Aristides,  Phocion, 

^Eschylus,  Pericles,  Socrates,  and  made  possible  such  vic- 

,  tories  as  those  of  Marathon,  Salamis,  and  Platsea?.     It 

^  was  emphatically  an  education  for  civic  manhood,  and 
it  was  gloriously  successful.  Its  ideal  was  the  perfect 
citizen. 

^/  Thus  far,  the  man  and  the  citizen  had  not  been  dis- 
tinguished, and  no  place  had  been  left  for  the  former, 
as  such — for  individualism.  But  the  day  came  for  that 
also,  a  day  heralded  by  two  events,  the  Persian  "Wars  and 
the  rise  of  Philosophy  or  Eeflection.  The  former  showed 
the  value  of  the  free,  civic  individual,  as  against  the  des- 
pot-ruled mass,  and  led  to  democracy;  the  latter  turned 
attention  to  the  facts  of  nature  and  life,  and  away  from 
the  myths  by  which  the  meaning  of  these  had  been  dis- 
torted; in  a  word,  to  science  and  away  from  theology. 
The  former  brought  external,  the  latter  internal,  freedom 
to  the  individual,  as  such. 

The  absence  of  distinct  priestly  and  military  classes  al- 
most of  necessity  led  to  democracy,  the  Persian  Wars 
merely  completing  a  work  already  far  advanced.  The 
same  thing  made  Philosophy  possible;  for  priestly  and 
military  organization  is  everywhere  the  foe  of  free  reflec- 
tion. We  have  already  seen  that  in  Homer  the  many 
capricious  (Semitic)  gods  had  behind  them  an  inexorable 
Fate  or  Necessity,  due  to  Aryan  thought.  As  Aryanism 
gained  the  upper  hand  in  Greece,  this  concept,  under  the 
name  of  Nature  (<£u<r*5),  gradually  came  to  the  front  and 
set  itself  up  in  opposition  to  Convention  (v6[io<;,  $60-49), 
to  which  the  gods,  since  they  were  not  universal,  but 
different  among  different  peoples,  owed  their  origin. 


100  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

Thus  arose  in  the  Greek  mind  the  distinction  between 
Necessity,  the  basis  of  science  and  philosophy,  and  Con- 
vention, the  basis  of  mythology  and  theology,  or,  in  a 
word,  between  science  and  theology — a  distinction  which 
slowly  ripened  into  a  conflict,  going  on  to  this  day.* 
Greek  philosophy  was  originally  an  appeal  from  conven- 
tional and  local  gods  to  universal  Necessity  or  Nature, 
an  endeavor  to  find  some  stable  principle  of  life,  amid  the 
conflict  of  various  gods  and  worships.  In  more  modern 
language,  it  was  an  appeal  from  particular  subjectivity  to 
universal  objectivity.  Nature  was  supposed  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  human  feeling  or  desire.  Nothing  is  more  in- 
teresting, in  the  history  of  human  thought,  than  the  proc- 
ess by  which  this  supposition  came  to  be  disproved,  and 
the  discovery  made  that  nature  is  vofiw,  conventional,  or 
subjective.  This  is  not  the  place  to  write,  even  briefly, 
the  history  of  pre-Socratic  philosophy.  Suffice  it  to  say 
that  it  ended  with  the  two  famous  sayings  of  Protagoras: 
"  About  the  gods,  I  cannot  know  whether  they  are  or  are 
not,"  and  "  Man  is  the  measure  of  all  things,  of  the  ex- 
istent as  existent,  and  of  the  non-existent  as  non-ex- 
istent." The  former  abolished  the  gods  and  theology, 
the  latter,  nature  and  science.  All  that  remained  was  in- 
dividual subjectivity,  or  universal  convention.  Thus,  for 
the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  world,  individualism 
made  its  claim  to  absolute  validity.  No  more  momentous 
event  ever  took  place.  As  presented  by  Protagoras,  this 
claim  undermined  the  entire  basis  upon  which  Greek 
political  and  ethical  life  and  education  rested,  and  the 

*See  .<Ei»chylus,  Agam.,  4-10;  Prometh..  511-19;  Lersch,  Sprach- 
philosophie  der  Alien,  pp.  4  sea.  ;  White,  Hist,  of  the  Warfare  of  Science 
and  Theology ;  Bussell,  The  School  of  Plato,  pp.  29  seq. " 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  101 

result  threatened  to  be  complete  anarchy.  There  seemed 
to  be  nothing  stable  anywhere.*  If  anything  of  the  sort 
existed,  it  must  evidently  be  sought  where  it  had  been 
least  expected,  in  man  himself.  Here  Socrates,  the  arch- 
sophist,  f  sought  and  found  it,  opening  up  a  new  career  for 
philosophy.  He  discovered,  by  his  dialectic  (conversa- 
tional) method,  that,  while  all  sensation,  or  feeling,  as 
such,  is  subjective  and  individual  (so  far  the  sophists  were 
right),  the  world  of  essences,  or  things,  which  we  place 
behind  the  bundles  of  these,  as  grouping  and  conditioning 
them,  that  is,  the  world  of  completed  thoughts,  or  ideas,  f 
is  objective,  virtually  the  same  in  all  men.  By  this  dis- 
covery, he  was  able  to  vindicate  the  claim  of  the  individual 
to  absolute  validity,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  reconcile 
that  claim  with  political  and  moral  life.  In  a  wor<|j 
/  Socrates  discovered  free  personality  and  moral  freedom, 
and  made  the  greatest  of  all  epochs  in  the  world's  history. 
In  doing  so,  he  likewise  introduced  a  distinction  between 
the  subjective  and  objective  worlds,  a  distinction  which 
had  momentous  consequences. 

In  the  hands  of  Plato,  that  great  poetic  genius,  who 
undertook  to  continue  the  work  of  Socrates,  this  dis- 
tinction hardened  into  a  separation  between  the  subjec- 
tive and  extra-subjective  worlds. §  Socrates's  completed 

*  For  the  result  upon  education  see  the  passage  from  Aristophanes 
quoted  in  my  Aristotle,  pp.  60  seq. 

t  Sophist  was  not  a  term  of  reproach  in  his  time.  See  Grote,  Hist,  of 
Greece.Vol.  VIII.,  pp.  151  seq. ;  Hegel,  Gesch.  der  Philos.,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  1 
eeq.  ;  Bussell,  School  of  Plato,  pp.  61  seq.  Socrates  adopted  the  funda- 
mental positions  of  the  Sophists,  and  supplemented  them.  See  Siebeck, 
Untersuch.  zur  Philos.  der  ffriechen,  pp.  1-63. 

%  It  is  not  certain  that  Socrates  used  the  term  "  idea,"  but  he  cer- 
tainly had  the  notion. 

§  Object,  of  course,  has  no  meaning  apart  from  subject.  They  are  not 
two  things,  but  two  aspects  of  the  same  thing  in  consciousness.  Kant 
and  his  followers  have  blundered  sadly  in  this  respect.  See  Trendelen- 
burg,  Elementa  Logices  Aristoteleve,  p.  54,  note  2. 


102  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

thoughts,  the  same  in  all  consciousness,  now  become 
ideas,  outside  of  all  consciousness — a  world  of  things-in- 
themselves,  subsisting  by  themselves.*  Thus,  not  only 
was  the  world  doubled,  but  the  unseen  world  of  ideas 
came  to  be  regarded  as  the  reality,  of  which  the  seen  or 
sensible  world  was  only  a  shadow.  Those  who  accepted 
this  view  naturally  turned  their  interest  away  from  the 
shadowy,  to  the  real,  world,  and,  in  so  doing,  found  a 
sphere  for  the  individual.  Thus  there  came  to  be  a  lower 
social  life  of  civic  duties,  and  a  higher  individual  life 
of  ideal  contemplation  ($eo>/Jta),  or  self-sufficing  joy 
(84070)77;),  and  the  latter  tended  ever,  more  and  more, 
to  increase  in  importance.  As  the  state  had  made  no 
provision  for  this  sort  of  life,  education  for  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  private  individuals,  philosophers,  whose  in- 
fluence, earnest  and  noble  though  it  often  was,  could  not 
but  tend  to  draw  their  pupils  away  from  civic  and  tem- 
poral affairs,  and  to  direct  their  attention  upon  eternal 
relations.  The  state  was  no  longer  the  sole  sphere  of 
human  activity.  A  sphere  infinitely  greater  and  more 
attractive  had  risen  up  in  the  imagination  and  was  calling 
for  a  large  share  of  effort.  In  a  word,  civic  solidarity  be- 
gan to  give  place  to  celestial  solidarity,  until,  finally,  the 
natural  and  civic  came  to  be  regarded  as  something  evil, 
to  be  escaped  from  as  soon  as  possible.  Thus  arose  the 
idea  of  purification  (/eo£a/>crts)  or  deliverance  (aTraX- 
»7),  which  later  passed  into  that  of  redemption  (cnro\v- 
The  body  was  now  regarded  as  a  prison  f  or  a 
tomb,J  and  death  as  the  transition  from  appearance  to 

*  In  later  life,  Plato  turned  his  back  upon  this  view ;  but  it  was  too 
late.     See  Lutoslawski,  Origin  and  Growth  of  Plato's  Logic,  pp.  425  seq. 
t  foovpd,  Plato,  Phcedo,  62  B.    Of.  64  C. ;  69  C. 
I  Heraclitus  even  said,  2<^iara  cnipara,  Bodies  are  barrows.     Frag.  LI. 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  103 

reality.  The  foundation  of  mysticism  and  asceticism  was 
laid:  the  phenomenal  world  and,  with  it,  natural  science, 
for  the  most  part,  were  placed  under  the  ban. 

To  the  old  curriculum  of  gymnastics,  music,  and  let- 
ters, the  "New  Education"  added  (1)  Mathematics 
(geometry  and  astronomy*),  and  (2)  Philosophy,  the 
former  being  regarded  as  an  introduction  to  the  latter. 
Of  the  method  of  teaching  geometry  we  have  an  admir- 
able specimen  of  Euclid;  of  that  of  teaching  philosophy, 
in  the  dialogues  of  Plato. f  Philosophy  took  institutional 
form  in  "  Schools  "  (S^oXa/)  J  which  stood  apart  from, 
and  over  against,  the  State,  like  so  many  religious  sects 
or  churches — nurseries  of  individualism  and  mysticism. 

Aristotle  tried  to  heal  the  breach  between  Plato's  two 
worlds  by  maintaining  that  ideas  (eiSrj)  exist  only  in  in- 
dividuals^ but  he  left  the  root  of  mysticism  untouched, 
by  admitting  one  exception,  namely,  the  supreme  idea,  or 
God,  whom  he  conceived  as  an  empty,  formal  "  thinking 
of  thinking,"  standing  apart  from  the  world,  and  being 
neither  its  creator  nor  its  active  guide.  ||  In  spite  of 
this,  he  contributed  enormously  to  the  revival  and  ad- 
vance of  science.  He  may  be  said  to  be  the  founder  of 
the  natural,  political,  ethical,  logical,  and  aesthetic  sci- 
ences. It  was  singularly  unfortunate  for  the  world  that, 

*  See  Aristophanes,  Clouds,  201  seq. 

t  Aristotle,  in  his  "  exoteric"  teaching,  used  the  dialogic  method.  See 
Bernays,  Die  Dialoge  des  Aristoteles,  in  ihrem  Verhdltniss  zu  seinen 
iibrigen  Werken. 

J  As  we  shall  see,  later  on,  these  schools  are  the  parents,  not  only  of 
our  universities,  but  also  of  the  religious  orders.  The  earliest  school- 
founder  was  Pythagoras. 

§  Plato  held  to  universalia  ante  rem,  Aristotle  to  universalia  in  re, 
and  the  Cynics  and  Stoics  to  universalia  post  rem.  (See  Haureau,  De  la 
Philos.  Scolastique,  cap.  III.  ;  Zeller,  Philos.  der  Oriechen,  Vol.  TV.,  p. 
71,  2d  Edit.)  These  distinctions  will  show  their  importance  later. 

I  Metaph.,  XL,  7;  1072b  seq.  ;  and  cf.,  throughout,  Elser,  Die  Wirk- 
ung  des  Aristotelischen  Oottes.  -^ 


104  THE  HISTORY   OP  EDUCATION 

for  several  hundred  years  after  his  death,  his  influence 
was  confined  to  a  narrow  circle  of  disciples,  while  that 
of  Plato  was  widely  diffused.  The  result  was  the  decay 
of  scientific  research,  and  the  growth  of  a  fanciful  world- 
view,  which,  because  it  was  untrue,  had  to  seek  refuge 
in  sacredness  and,  ultimately,  when  this  did  not  suffice, 
in  external  authority.  Such  a  view,  though  professing  to 
be  profoundly  philosophical,  was  in  reality  merely  myth- 
ological, and  was,  therefore,  eminently  fitted  to  combine 
with  those  hoary  Oriental  mythologies,  with  which,  ow- 
ing to  the  conquest  of  Alexander  and  the  spread  of  Hel- 
lenism, it  was  soon  to  come  in  contact. 

With  Aristotle,  Greek  thought  and,  with  it,  Greek 
ideals  and  Greek  education,  came  to  an  end.  What  is 
called  Greek  thought,  subsequent  to  him,  is  mostly  a  com- 
pound of  Hellenic  (Platonic)  mythologic  idealism  and 
Oriental  religion,  and  is  professed  almost  entirely  by 
men  of  non-Hellenic  blood — Jews,  Phoenicians,  Syrians, 
Arabs,  etc.  Its  aim  is  no  longer  the  discovery  of  truth 
'  upon  which  to  found  a  natural  social  order,  but  the  con- 
struction of  a  supernatural  world  in  which  to  take  refuge 
from  the  social  order  altogether.*  The  truth  is,  Alex- 
ander's empire,  in  destroying  civic  solidarity,  made  the 
endeavor  after  extra-civic  or  contra-civic  solidarity, 
superhuman  or  subhuman  culture,  almost  a  necessity. 

With  the  decay  of  Hellenic  civic  culture  arose  Hellen- 
istic culture,  whose  tendencies  were  distinctly  cosmopoli- 
tan, and  which,  therefore,  comes  under  the  rubric  of  hu- 

*  Almost  the  only  exception  is  Epicureanism,  whose  founder  seems  to 
have  been  a  pure  Greek  ;  but  even  it  teaches  man  to  look  for  satisfaction, 
not  in  civic  life,  but  in  subjective  friendship.  Stoicism,  whose  founder 
was  plainly  a  Semite,  in  calling  upon  men  to  live  "  according  to  nature" 
forbade  them  to  live  according  to  human  nature,  which  is  essentially 
social  and  civic. 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  105 

man  culture.  Before  we  pass  on  to  this,  and  the  educa- 
tion corresponding  to  it,  we  must  cast  a  brief  glance  at 
Roman  civic  culture  and  education. 


(3)  Roman  Education 
Who  would  command  must  in  command  find  bliss : 

Enjoyment  vulgarizes. 

— GOETHE,  Faust. 

Then  none  were  for  a  party, 

But  all  were  for  the  state ; 
And  the  rich  man  loved  the  poor, 

And  the  poor  man  loved  the  great. 
Then  lands  were  fairly  portioned 

And  spoils  were  fairly  sold  ; 
For  the  Romans  were  like  brothers 

In  the  brave  days  of  old. 

— MACAULAT. 

The  Romans  were  distinguished  from  all  other  nations,  not  only 
by  the  extreme  earnestness  and  precision  with  which  they  conceived 
their  law  and  worked  out  the  consequences  of  its  fundamental  prin- 
ciples, but  by  the  good-sense  which  made  them  submit  to  the  law, 
once  established,  as  an  absolute  necessity  of  political  health  and 
strength.  .  .  .  The  divine  law,  the  elder  sister  of  the  civil  law, 
was  the  pattern  on  which  the  latter  was  moulded. — WILHELM  IHNB. 

The  Romans  were  a  cold,  calculating,  selfish  people,  without  en- 
thusiasm or  the  power  of  awakening  enthusiasm,  distinguished  by 
self-control  and  an  iron  will  rather  than  by  graces  of  character. 
They  were  proud,  overbearing,  cruel,  and  rapacious. — Ib. 

The  old  Roman  theology  was  a  hard,  narrow,  unexpansive  sys- 
tem of  abstraction  and  personification  which  strove  to  represent  in 
its  pantheon  the  phenomena  of  nature,  the  relations  of  men  in  the 
state  or  in  the  clan,  every  act  and  feeling  and  incident  in  the  life 
of  the  individual.  But,  unlike  the  mythologies  of  Hellas  and  the 


106  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

East,  it  had  no  native  principle  of  growth  or  adaptation  to  altered 
needs  of  society  and  the  individual  imagination.  It  was  singularly 
wanting  in  awe  and  mystery.  The  religious  spirit  which  it  culti- 
vated was  formal,  timid,  and  scrupulous. — DILL,  Roman  Society  in 
the  Last  Century  of  the  Western  Empire,  pp.  62  seq. 

When  we  pass  from  Athens  to  Home,  we  pass  from 
poetry  to  prose;  from  an  artists'-picnic  to  a  business 
house;  from  a  people  seeking  to  make  the  present  beau- 
tiful, and  to  enjoy  it  rationally  and  nobly,  to  a  people 
that  subordinates  present  enjoyment  to  future  gain;  from 
a  people  that  lives  by  reason  to  a  people  that  lives  by 
authority.  While  the  Athenians  "  rejoice  before  "  their 
gods,  the  Romans  keep  a  debtor  and  creditor  account 
with  theirs,  and  are  very  anxious  that  the  balance  shall 
always  be  on  the  right  side.  (There  is  a  strong  resem- 
blance between  the  Romans  and  the  Spartans.  There  are 
in  both  the  same  stern  organization,  the  same  complete 
subordination  of  the  individual  to  the  state,  the  same  con- 
tempt for  enjoyment  and  all  the  gentler  and  fairer  sides 
of  life.  But  there  is  this  striking  and  important  differ- 
ence: while  the  Spartans  are  held  together  by  a  severe 
and  even  exaggerated  discipline,  the  Romans  hold  to- 
gether of  their  own  free-will,  like  a  company  of  co-opera- 
tive workmen.  This  accounts  for  much  in  Roman  life — 
its  conservativeness,  prosaic  practicality,  exclusiveness, 
and  permanence — as  well  as  in  Roman  education.  /The 
original  co-operative  association,  having  attained  success, 
and  therewith  certain  advantages  over  its  neighbors,  was 
loath  to  open  its  doors  to  new-comers  and  equally  loath  to 
abandon  the  principles  to  which  its  first  success  was 
due.  Hence  the  long  struggle  between  patricians  and 
plebeians.  I 


CIVIC  EDUCATION  107 

Rome  *  seems  to  have  arisen  from  a  combination 
(a-vvoiKicrfjLos)  of  villages  inhabited  by  peoples  of  dif- 
ferent races — Turanians,  Semites,  and  Aryans — who  at 
different  times  had  settled  upon  the  Septimontium.  The 
Aryans  were,  doubtless,  the  dominant  factor;  but  the 
others  contributed  important  elements:  the  Turanians, 
the  bulk  of  the  religious  notions  and  rites;  the  Semites, 
the  prosaic  practicality  and  thirst  for  power.  With  their 
language  the  Aryans,  naturally,  imposed  their  political 
forms. 

Eoman  education,  like  Roman  life,  was  intensely  prac- 
tical, merely  preparing  for  the  functions  of  domestic  and 
political  (including  religious)  life.  Roman  religion  was 
never  an  individual  matter,  touching  the  inner  individual 
life;  it  was  the  combining  force  of  family  and  of  state. 
It  naturally  followed  that,  for  long  ages,  there  were  no 
schools  in  Rome.  The  necessary  education  was  imparted 
in  the  family,  in  the  forum,  and  in  the  field.  There  were 
no  books.  Annals  and  laws  were  recorded  by  special 
functionaries,  specially  educated  for  the  purpose.  Bal- 
lads, warlike  and  religious  songs,  and  laws  were  com- 
mitted to  memory  and  chanted  to  rude,  simple  airs.  Even 
in  her  best  days,  Rome  was  almost  entirely  innocent  of 
literature,  art,  and  science. 

In  the  Roman  family  the  father  was  absolute  master, 
and,  though  the  wife  occupied  a  responsible  and  honored 
position,  she  was  legally  a  daughter  (in  loco  fillce).  The 
children  might  be  exposed,  put  to  death,  or  sold  into 
slavery,  at  the  will  of  the  father,  f  If  Greek  fathers 

*  Originally,  in  all  likelihood,  a  Semitic  Rama  or  "high  place,"  Bacred 
to  Baal,  called  Pales  by  the  Romans,  who  celebrated  to  him  the  Palilia. 
t  On  the  patria  potestas  see  Institutes  of  Justinian. 


108  THE  HISTORY   OP  EDUCATION 

sought  to  make  their  sons  independent  as  early  as  pos- 
sible, Roman  fathers  did  exactly  the  opposite.  As  a  re- 
sult of  rigid  discipline,  Roman  family  life  was  grave, 
dignified,  laborious,  and  god-fearing — one  might  almost 
say,  puritanic.  The  children  learnt,  first  of  all,  to  obey 
their  parents  and  to  fear  the  gods.  As  soon  as  they  could 
leave  the  nursery,  the  boys,  instead  of  dividing  their  day 
as  Athenian  boys  did,  between  the  palasstra  and  the 
school,  under  careful  supervision,  were  turned  loose  to 
romp,  play  ball,  swim,  ride,  etc.  About  the  age  of  six- 
teen, they  assumed  the  toga  virilis,  were  registered  as 
citizens,  and  began  to  perform  the  duties  of  such — duties 
which  they  learnt  by  actual  practice  in  field  and  forum, 
in  the  society  of  their  elders.  Meanwhile,  the  girls  re- 
mained quietly  at  home  with  their  mothers,  learning  the 
arts  of  domestic  life.  Nowhere,  perhaps,  is  the  Roman 
girl's  ideal  better  expressed  than  in  an  ancient  epitaph 
on  a  worthy  matron: 

44  Stranger,  my  tale  is  briefly  told ; 

O  stay,  and  read  with  care. 
This  gloomy  tomb  contains  the  bloom 
Of  one  that  once  was  fair. 

44  Her  name  was  Claudia.     To  her  lord 

Her  heart's  full  love  she  paid. 
Two  sons  she  had,  one  left  on  earth 
And  one  beside  her  laid. 

44  Her  words  were  mild,  her  manners  chaste; 

Her  home  she  ruled  in  peace. 
She  plied  the  distaff  and  the  loom. 
Now  go  thy  way :  I  cease." 

The  education  here  outlined  is  that  of  the  oldest  period, 
before  Rome  came  much  in  contact  with  Greek  culture. 


CIVIC   EDUCATION  109 

This  contact  began  as  far  back,  at  least,  as  the  rise  of  the 
Republic,  and  from  that  time  on  we  find  a  gradual  infil- 
tration of  literary  education.*  It  was  not,  however,  till 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.C.  that  regular 
schools  were  opened.  The  oldest  schoolmaster  known  to 
us  was  Spurius  Carvilius.  He  and  his  fellows,  however, 
were  at  a  great  disadvantage  for  want  of  school-books, 
there  being  no  such  thing  as  an  available  Roman  litera- 
ture. In  a  short  time  this  deficiency  was  supplied  by 
the  rise  of  a  literature  imitated  from  the  Greek — the 
works  of  ISTaevius,  Livius  Andronicus,  Ennius,  Pacuvius, 
and  Plautus.  The  Latin  version  of  the  Odyssey,  by  the 
second  of  these,  now  became  for  the  Eomans  what  the 
Homeric  poems  generally  had  long  been  for  the  Greeks. 
At  the  same  time  the  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language 
became  more  and  more  an  accomplishment  of  the  upper 
classes,  being  imparted  by  slave  tutors.  When  at  last,  in 
146  B.C.,  Greece  became  a  Roman  province, 

"  Captive  Greece  took  captive  her  rude  conqueror, 
And  brought  the  arts  to  Latiutn,"  f 

in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  the  elder  Cato  to  uphold  the 
old  Roman  rigorous  discipline.!  From  this  point  on 
Roman  education  becomes,  like  education  everywhere, 
Hellenistic,  and  hardly  calls  for  special  treatment.  For 
considerable  time  instruction  was  imparted  in  the  Greek 
language;  but  about  100  B.C.  a  Roman  eques,  Lucius 

*  The  Ephesian  Hermodorus,  uncle  of  Heraclitus,  the  philosopher,  is 
said  to  have  had  a  share  in  drawing  up  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables, 
451  B.C. 

t  Horace. 

I  Cato  died  in  148  B.C.  His  book  on  Education  (De  Liberia  Edu- 
candis)  has  not  come  down  to  us.  Despite  all  his  efforts,  he  was  far 
from  being  unaffected  by  Greek  culture. 


STATE  1JORMAL  SCHOOL, 


110  THE   HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 


Prseconius  Stilo,  inspired  by  patriotism,  opened  a 
school  in  which  Latin  was  employed,  and  from  that  time 
on  the  use  of  Greek  declined.  Among  Praaconius's  pupils 
were  Varro  and  Cicero,  who,  along  with  Julius  Caesar, 
may  be  called  the  fathers  of  Latinity. 

But,  although  the  Latin  language  triumphed,,  Eoman 
education  under  the  empire  is,  in  all  respects,  Greek, 
while  Eoman  literature  is  but  a  rather  formal  and  stilted 
imitation  of  Greek  models.  The  studies  most  in  favor  at 
Koine  were  Grammar  (Literature),  Rhetoric,  and  Philos- 
ophy, the  last  remaining  always  a  mere  elegant  accom- 
plishment. Rhetoric,  by  reason  of  its  practical  use,  was 
the  principal  study.  It  forms  the  subject  of  the  chief 
work  *  of  the  greatest  of  Roman  educators,  Quintilian, 
who,  about  A.D.  68,  opened  a  school  of  rhetoric  at  Rome, 
and  under  Vespasian  received  a  salary  from  the  public 
treasury.  This  work  gives  us  an  outline  of  Roman  educa- 
tion in  the  early  centuries  of  our  era.  It  tells  us  how 
the  child  is  to  be  nursed,  taught  good  habits  of  action  and 
speech,  instructed  in  reading,  writing,  and  literature. 
Home  education  is  deprecated  and  emulation  in  school  is 
to  be  encouraged.  The  chief  studies  in  school  are  Gram- 
mar —  that  is,  Literature,  consisting  of  Methodics  and 
Histories  —  Music,  and  Astronomy.  On  leaving  school, 
ambitious  young  men  place  themselves  in  the  hands  of 
the  rhetorical  teacher,  under  whom  they  learn  all  the 
arts,  with  a  view  to  conversation  and  public  speaking. 
Knowledge  for  knowledge'  sake  hardly  enters  into  the 
calculations  of  the  Roman.  With  him  rhetoric,  the  power 
of  saying,  takes  the  place  of  philosophy,  the  power  of 
thinking. 

*  De  Inttitutione  Oratorio. 


CIVIC   EDUCATION  111 

In  other  respects  besides  this,  Koman  education  re- 
mained un-Greek.  It  was  essentially  ungesthetic,  aiming 
not  at  "sweetness  and  light,"  but  rather  at  force  and 
effectiveness.  It  was  not  culture,  but  discipline,  always 
harsh,  and  not  seldom  brutal.  Boys  were  licked  black 
and  blue  for  mispronouncing  a  word  in  reading.  The 
school-sessions  were  long,  extending,  with  but  a  brief 
recess,  from  early  dawn  to  sunset.  The  school-rooms 
were  often  mere  sheds,  and  nearly  always  poor  and  ill- 
furnished,  without  desks,  and  often  without  seats.  As 
a  state,  Home  at  no  period  of  her  existence  took  much 
interest  in  education:  all  the  schools  were,  therefore, 
private  enterprises,  and,  as  the  profession  of  teacher  was 
despised,  teaching  fell  into  the  hands  of  men  who  were 
fit  for  nothing  else — generally  freed-men,  or  even  slaves. 
The  fact  that  they  took  pay  for  their  services  brought 
them  into  the  same  social  category  as  the  carpenter  and 
the  shoemaker,  and  they  were  treated  as  these  were.  It 
was  only  in  imperial  times  that  rhetoricians,  like  Quin- 
tilian,  enjoyed  some  consideration. 

It  is  interesting  to  realize  that,  if  Eome  adopted  Greek 
education,  this  was  no  mere  matter  of  accident.  If  her 
rule  was  to  be  universal,  as  she  meant  it  to  be,  her  culture 
had  to  be  so  likewise,  and  Greek  culture  was  in  those 
days  the  only  one  that  could  lay  claim  to  universality, 
the  reason  being  that  it  rested  upon  reason,  which  is 
universal,  and  not  upon  tradition,  which  is  local  and  na- 
tional. But  of  this  more  in  the  next  chapter. 


BOOK  II. 

HUMAN  EDUCATION 


HUMAN  EDUCATION 

INTRODUCTORY 

I  am  a  man  :  I  hold  nothing  human  alien  to  me — MENANDER. 

Nature  ordains  that  a  man  should  wish  the  good  of  every  man, 
whoever  he  may  be,  for  the  simple  reason  that  he  is  a  man. — • 
CICERO,  De  Offic.,  III.,  6. 

We  are  members  of  one  great  body.  Nature  made  ua  relatives 
when  she  begat  us  from  the  same  materials  and  for  the  same 
destiny.  She  planted  in  us  mutual  love  and  fitted  us  for  social  life. 
— Seneca,  Epist.  xcv. 

What  is  Roman  knight  or  freedman  or  slave  ?  They  are  but 
names  having  their  origin  in  ambition  or  wrong. — Id.,  Epist.  xxxi. 

You  are  a  citizen  and  a  part  of  the  world.  .  .  .  The  duty  of 
a  citizen  is  in  nothing  to  consider  his  own  interest  distinct  from 
that  of  others,  as  hand  or  foot,  if  they  possessed  reason  and  under- 
stood the  law  of  nature,  would  do  and  wish  nothing  that  had  not 
some  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  body. — EPICTETUS. 

As  Antonine,  my  country  is  Rome  ;  as  a  man,  the  world. — MAR- 
CUS AURELIUS.* 

People  at  the  civic  grade  of  culture  draw  a  sharp 
distinction  between  themselves  and  their  neighbors, 
with  implied  superiority  on  their  own  side.  Each  is 
held  together  by  its  own  gods,  its  own  laws  and  cus- 
toms, its  own  language,  literature,  and  memories,  and 
looks  down  upon  all  the  others.  The  Jew  places  him- 

*See  Lecky,  Hist,  of  European  Morals,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  253  seq. 
115 


116  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

self  above  the  gentile;  the  Greek  himself  above  the 
barbarian,  and  so  on.  Even  when  peoples  of  different 
races  and  tongues  are  united  under  a  common  govern- 
ment, there  is  always  one  ruling  race  which  holds  the 
others  in  subjection  and  contempt.  There  js  as  yet  no 
feeling  or  recognition  of  a  common,  all-embracing  hu- 
manity. Nor,  indeed,  can  there  be  until  the  distinc- 
tively human  element  in  humanity  is  brought  into 
prominence.  This  element  is  Reason,  in  which  all  men 
share.  So  long  as  men  live  by  tradition,  by  laws  sup- 
posed to  have  been  divinely  given  to  particular  men,  or 
by  mere  use  and  wont,  so  long  they  have  no  common 
bond;  so  long  they  stand  opposed  to  each  other  in  na- 
tions and  groups.  In  proportion  as  Eeason  rules,  they 
unite,  and  the  result  is  human  culture,  in  the  attempt 
to  realize  which  the  world  has  been  engaged  for  over 
two  thousand  years,  so  far,  it  is  sad  to  think,  with  but 
very  partial  success.  The  reasons  for  this  we  shall  try 
to  make  clear. 


DIVISION  I. 

SUPERNATURAL  BEGINNINGS   OF 
HUMANISM 

CHAPTER  I. 

HELLENISTIC  EDUCATION 

It  had  been  the  fond  dream  of  Alexander  to  found  a  universal 
empire,  which  should  be  held  together  not  merely  by  the  unity  of 
the  government,  but  also  by  the  unity  of  language,  customs,  and 
civilization.  All  the  Oriental  races  were  to  be  saturated  with 
Hellenic  culture,  and  to  be  bound  together  into  one  great  whole  by 
means  of  this  intellectual  force.  .  .  .  All  Western  Asia,  in 
fact,  if  not  among  the  wide  masses  of  the  population,  yet  certainly 
among  the  higher  ranks  of  society,  became  thoroughly  Hellenized. 
Even  in  Palestine  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  this 
movement  was  in  full  progress. — SCHURER,  Hist,  of  the  Jews  in  the 
Time  of  Jesus  Christ,  Div.  I.,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  194  seq. 

It  was  the  crowning  glory  of  the  Greek  people  and, 
in  the  last  resort,  of  Socrates,*  to  have  discovered  rea- 
son, and  thus  to  have  made  possible  human  culture, 
education,  and  moral  freedom.  As  soon  as  the  knowl- 
edge of  this  discovery  spread,  Greece  ceased  to  be  able 

*  The  Reason  (Afyos)  of  Heraclitus  and  the  Intellect  (vous)  of  Anaxag- 
oras  are  nature-ordering  principles,  rather  than  sources  of  authority  in 
man.  Indeed,  reason,  in  the  Socratic  sense,  could  not  have  been  dis- 
covered, until  the  sophists  had  done  their  work  of  showing  "  nature"  to 
be  subjective. 

117 


118  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

to  live  as  a  small  polity,  and  claimed  universal  sway. 
In  less  than  a  century  her  sons  had  carried  Greek  edu- 
cation and  culture  over  the  whole  East.  We  have  al- 
ready seen  that  nearly  all  "  Greek "  philosophers  after 
Aristotle  were  Orientals.  We  have  now  to  add  that  they 
were  no  longer,  strictly  speaking,  philosophers  at  all. 
The  truth  is,  when  the  Greeks  became  dominant  in  the 
East,  bringing  with  them  their  schools,  gymnasia,  the- 
atres, stadia,  and  the  results  of  these,  they  so  fascinated 
the  subject  peoples  that  these  endeavored  to  approximate 
their  conquerors  by  trying  to  translate  their  national 
creeds  and  mythologies  into  the  universal  thought -forms 
of  the  latter.  Thus  there  arose  those  numerous  com- 
pounds of  Eastern  mythology  and  Greek  thought  which 
we  know  as  Hellenistic  philosophy — Neo-Pythagorean- 
ism,  Neo-Mazdeism,*  Gnosticism,  Philonism,f  etc.  This 
amalgamation  was  rendered  comparatively  easy  by  the 
semi-mythical  form  into  which  Plato,  Aristotle,  and 
Zeno  had  converted  the  Socratic  doctrine.  The  "  ideas  " 
(ISeai)  of  PlatQ,  the  "forms"  (ei&rj)  of  Aristotle,  and 
the  "  reason  "  (\6yos)  of  the  Stoics  are  as  purely  myths 
as  Zeus,  Apollo,  and  Athena.  They  have,  however,  the 
advantage  of  not  being  local  or  national.  The  Hellen- 
ization  of  Oriental  mythology  consisted  mainly  in  trans- 
lating the  popular  gods  into  the  ideas  of  Plato  and  the 
Reason  of  the  Stoics.  The  thoughts  of  Aristolle  and 
Epicurus  played  but  a  small  part  in  the  process. 

Though  Hellenistic  culture  spread  over  the  whole 

*  See  Darmesteter,  Introduction  to  Avesta  (Sacred  Books  of  the  East), 
pp.  iv.,  sqq.,  3d  Edit. 

t  Even  the  pious,  Torah-bound  Jews  could  not  resist  the  advances  of 
Hellenism ;  hence  the  Maccabaean  Wars  (see  Schiirer,  History  of  the 
Jews  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ,  Div.  L,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  194  seq.),  and  the 
philosophy  of  Koheleth. 


HELLENISTIC   EDUCATION  119 

East,  reaching  perhaps  even  India,  its  chief  centre  was 
Alexandria,  the  city  founded  by,  and  named  after,  the 
great  Macedonian  conqueror,  the  city  in  which  all  the 
peoples  of  the  East  mixed  and  exchanged  views,  the  city 
in  which  the  notion  of  universal  human  brotherhood 
seems  first  to  have  taken  root.  Here — and  this  is  the 
most  important  fact  for  our  present  purpose — Greeks 
and  Jews  lived  on  almost  equal  terms  and  learned  to 
respect  each  other.*  Here  flourished  the  school  and 
the  palaestra  of  the  former  and  the  leth-hammidrash  of 
the  latter.  Here  the  Greeks  became  acquainted  with 
the  monotheism  and  moral  earnestness  of  the  Jews, 
while  the  Jews  learned  to  appreciate  the  culture  of  the 
Greeks.  Many  Greeks  and  half-Greeks  became  prose- 
lytes to  Judaism,f  while  some  Jews  quietly  went  over 
to  Hellenism.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  translated 
into  Greek  (the  Septuagint),  and  to  a  large  extent  re- 
placed the  original.  The  Jews  spoke  Greek  and  called 
themselves  by  Greek  names.  Philo  and  oth.er  learned 
Jews  translated  the  "  Law  "  into  the  language  of  Plato 
and  the  Stoics,  or,  rather,  professed  to  rind  the  whole 
of  Platonism  and  Stoicism  in  the  Law,  maintaining  that 
Plato  had  borrowed  from  Moses.  In  order  to  do  this 
they  had  to  make  use  of  the  most  shameless  allegorisms, 
capable  of  making  anything  mean  anything.  \  Thus 
there  was  a  thorough  commingling  of  Judaism  and 
Hellenism  in  the  thought  of  Alexandria.  In  the  Jewish 

*  The  Jews  occupied  two  of  the  five  quarters  of  Alexandria,  were  gov- 
erned by  their  own  laws  and  their  own  "alabarch."  See  Drummond, 
Philo  Judceus,  Vol.  I. ,  pp.  3  seq. 

t  See  Schiirer,  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  Div.  II.,  Vol.  II ,  pp.  291  seq. 

j  See  the  Works  of  Philo,  and  cf .  Drnmmond,  Philo  Judceus,  or  Jew- 
ish Alexandrian  Philosophy, passim  ;  Bigg,  The  Christian  Platonists  of 
Alexandria,  pp.  134-01. 


120  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

schools,  the  Greek  curriculum,  which  at  that  time  com- 
prised very  nearly  the  "  Seven  Liberal  Arts/'  *  was 
added  to  the  old  instruction  in  the  Torah;  nay,  the 
Torah  must  often  have  been  expounded  in  the  abstract 
language  of  Plato,  f 

*See  the  appendix  to  my  Aristotle,  or  the  Ancient  Educational  Ideals. 

t  It  is  hardly  probable  that  the  Greek  schools  below  the  University 
(Museum)  borrowed  anything  from  the  Jews.  If  they  had,  the  fact 
would  be  nothing  to  our  purpose.  Bigg,  ut  sup.,  p.  41. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    CHRISTIAN    "CATECHETICAL   SCHOOL"  OP 
ALEXANDRIA 

Of  incalculable  importance  was  the  Catechetical  School  of  Alex- 
andria, in  the  transformation  of  the  pagan  empire  into  a  Christian 
one,  of  Greek,  into  ecclesiastical,  philosophy.  In  the  third  century, 
this  school  scientifically  rose  above  paganism,  at  the  same  time 
preserving  everything  that  was  of  any  value  in  Greek  science  and 
culture.  These  Alexandrians  wrote  for  the  cultured  of  all  the 
world :  they  introduced  Christianity  into  the  culture  of  the  world. 
— HARNACK,  Dogmengesch.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  547. 

In  the  Catechetical  School  of  Alexandria  the  whole  of  Greek 
science  was  taught  and  made  subservient  to  the  ends  of  Christian 
apologetics. — Id.  ibid.,  p.  551. 

As  an  idealistic  philosopher  Origen  turned  the  whole  contest  of 
the  church's  faith  into  ideas. — Id.  ibid.,  p.  563. 

In  Egypt,  on  the  very  ground  which  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies was  to  be  the  home  of  Christian  monks,  there  was,  long  before 
them,  the  ascetic  life  of  the  cloister  devoted  to  the  worship  of 
Serapis.  The  ritual  has  many  traces  of  our  modern  ideas  of  devo- 
tion, and  foreshadows  in  some  respects  that  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
— DILL,  Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western  Umpire, 
p.  66. 

The  religion  of  the  Jews  revolved  round  three  con- 
cepts: (1)  a  One, .  omnipotent,  creative  God;  (2)  a 
Messiah;*  (3)  Holiness,!  concepts  which  in  Christianity 

*  On  the  various  meanings  of  this  word  see  Bishop  Westcott,  Introduc. 
to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels,  pp.  110-73. 

t  On  this  term  see  Robertson  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  pp.  140 
seq.,  450  seq. 

121 


122  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

hardened  into  the  three  persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 
In  this  religion  the  early  Christians,  consisting,  as  they 
did,  of  Jews  or  proselytes,  formed  a  sect,  differing  from 
the  others  mainly  in  the  one  fact  that  they  believed  the 
Messiah  to  have  appeared,  in  the  person  of  Jesus  of 
Nazareth,  and  to  be  about  to  appear  again.  It  was  this 
Jewish  Christianity,  and  not  the  gentile  Christianity 
of  Paul,  that  was  first  carried — it  is  said,  by  Mark  the 
friend  of  Peter — to  Alexandria.  In  course  of  time,  the 
new  sect  was  numerous  and  strong  enough  to  open  a 
synagogue  or  church*  of  its  own,  and,  connected  there- 
with, a  school.  The  founder  of  this  school  is  said  to 
have  been  Athenagoras,  the  apologete;  but  it  attained 
importance  first  under  Pantsenusf  about  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  A.D.  Pantaenus  was  succeeded,  first 
by  Clement  (died  about  213),  and  then  by  the  great 
Origen  (died  254). 

As  this  school  became,  in  large  measure,  the  type 
of  all  Christian  schools  for  a  long  period,  and  as  it 
forms  the  bridge  between  the  ancient  and  mediaeval  edu- 
cational worlds,  it  deserves  careful  consideration.  Per- 
haps I  cannot  do  better  than  quote  a  passage  from  Dr. 
Bigg's  Christian  Platonists  of  Alexandria: 
^"^A  large  and  rich  [Christian]  community,  existing 
in  the  bosom  of  a  great  university  town,  could  not  long 
submit  to  exclusion  from  the  paramount  interests  of 
the  place.  Their  most  promising  young  men  attended 
the  lectures  of  the  heathen  professors.  Some,  like  Am- 
monius,|  relapsed  into  Hellenism,  some  drifted  into 

*  In  early  times  these  terms  were  not  distinguished.  See  Schiirer, 
Hint,  of  the  Jews,  Div.  II,  Vol.  IL,  p.  58,  note  48. 

t  A  convert  from  Stoicism,  and  a  man  of  much  learning. 

t  The  founder  of  Neo-Platonism,  and  the  teacher  of  both  Origen  and 
Plotinua.  He  was  snrnamed  Saccas. 


123 

Gnosticism  like  Ambrosius,  some  like  Heracles  passed 
safely  through  the  ordeal,  and,  as  Christian  priests,  still 
wore  the  pallium  or  philosopher's  cloak,  the  doctor's 
gown,  we  may  call  it,  of  the  pagan  academy.  Learned 
professors  like  Celsus,  like  Porphyry,  began  to  study  the 
Christian  Scriptures  with  a  cool  interest  in  this  latest 
development  of  religious  thought,  and  pointed  out  with 
the  acumen  of  trained  critics  the  scientific  difficulties 
of  the  Older  Testament  and  the  contradictions  of  the 
New.  It  was  necessary  to  recognize,  and  if  possible  to 
profit  by,  the  growing  connection  between  the  Church 
and  the  lecture-room.  Hence  the  catechetical  instruc- 
tion, which  in  most  other  communities  continued  to  be 
given  in  an  unsystematic  way  by  bishop  or  priest,  had 
in  Alexandria  developed  about  the  middle  of  the  cen- 
tury into  a  regular  institution. 

"This  was  the  famous  Catechetical  School.  It  still 
continued  to  provide  instruction  for  those  desirous  of 
admission  into  the  Church,  but  with  this  humble  rou- 
tine it  combined  a  higher  and  more  ambitious  function.* 
It  was  partly  a  propaganda,  partly  we  may  regard  it  as 
a  denominational  college  by  the  side  of  a  secular  uni- 
versity. There  were  no  buildings  appropriated  to  the 
purpose.  The  master  received  the  pupils  in  his  own 
house,  and  Origen  was  often  engaged  till  late  at  night 
in  teaching  his  classes  or  giving  private  advice  or  in- 
struction to  those  who  needed  it.  The  students  were 
of  both  sexes,  of  very  different  ages.  Some  were  con- 
verts preparing  for  baptism,  some  idolaters  seeking  for 
light,  some  Christians  reading,  as  we  should  say,  for 

*  "Schools  of  a  similar  description  existed  at  Antioch,  Athens,  Edessa 
Nisibis ;  Guerike,  De  Schola  Alex.,  p.  2;  Harnack,  JDogmtngeschichte 
501  eeq."  [Vol.  I.,  pp.  547  seq.,  2d  Edit.] 


124  THE  HISTOEY  OF  EDUCATION 

orders  or  for  the  cultivation  of  their  understandings. 
There  was  as  yet  no  rigid  system,  no  definite  classifica- 
tion of  Catechumens,  such  as  that  which  grew  up  a  cen- 
tury later.  The  teacher  was  left  free  to  deal  with  his 
task  as  the  circumstances  of  his  pupils  or  his  own  genius 
led  him.  But  the  general  course  of  instruction  pursued 
in  the  Alexandrian  school  we  are  fortunately  able  to  dis- 
cover with  great  accuracy  and  fulness  of  detail.  Those 
who  were  not  capable  of  anything  more  were  taught  the 
facts  of  the  Creed,  with  such  comment  and  explanation 
as  seemed  desirable.  Others,  Origen  tells  us,  were  taught 
dialectically.  The  meaning  of  this  phrase  is  interpreted 
for  us  by  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  one  of  the  most  il- 
lustrious and  attached  of  Origen's  disciples.  At  the 
outset  the  student's  power  of  reasoning  and  exact  ob- 
servation were  strengthened  by  a  thorough  course  of 
scientific  study,  embracing  geometry,  physiology,*  and 
astronomy.  After  science  came  philosophy.  The  writ- 
ings of  all  the  theological  poets,  and  of  all  the  philos- 
ophers except  the  'godless  Epicureans'  were  read  and 
expounded.  The  object  of  the  teacher  was  no  doubt  in 
part  controversial.  He  endeavored  to  prove  the  need  of 
revelation  by  dwelling  on  the  contradictions  and  imper- 
fections of  all  human  systems,  or  he  pointed  out  how 
the  partial  light  vouchsafed  to  Plato  and  Aristotle  was 
but  an  earnest  of  the  dayspring  from  on  high.  But  the 
attitude  of  Clement  or  Origen  toward  Greek  thought 
was  not  controversial  in  any  petty  or  ignoble  sense. 
They  looked  up  to  the  great  master-minds  of  the  Hel- 
lenic schools  with  a  generous  admiration,  and  infused 
the  same  spirit  into  their  disciples. 

*  That  is,  of  course,  Physics,  or  Natural  Philosophy. 


THE   CHRISTIAN    "CATECHETICAL   SCHOOL"     125 

"  Philosophy  culminated  in  ethics,  and  at  this  point 
began  the  dialectic  training  properly  so  called.  The 
student  was  called  upon  for  a  definition  of  one  of  those 
words  that  lie  at  the  root  of  all  morality,  Good  or  Evil, 
Justice  or  Law,  and  his  definition  became  the  theme 
of  a  close  discussion  conducted  in  the  form  of  question 
and  answer.  In  the  course  of  these  eager  systematic 
conversations  every  prejudice  was  dragged  to  light, 
every  confusion  unravelled,  every  error  convicted,  the 
shame  of  ignorance  was  intensified,  the  love  of  truth 
kindled  into  a  passion.  So  far  the  course  pursued  did 
not  differ  essentially  from  that  familiar  to  the  heathen 
schools.  But  at  this  point  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  Christian  seminary  come  into  view.  We  find 
them  in  the  consistency  and  power  with  which  virtue 
was  represented  as  a  subject  not  merely  for  speculation, 
but  for  practice — in  the  sympathy  and  magnetic  per- 
sonal attraction  of  the  teacher — but  above  all  in  the 
theology,  to  which  all  other  subjects  of  thought  were 
treated  as  ancillary"  (pp.  41-43). 

It  is  to  the  last  clauses  of  this  quotation  that  we  must 
pay  special  attention.  What  distinguished  the  Chris- 
tian from  the  pagan  schools  was  the  fact  that  in  the 
former  all  education  revolved  round  Theology  and  Ee- 
ligion,  as  the  means  to  eternal  salvation.  The  Greeks 
educated  for  this  life;  the  Christians  for  the  life  to 
come.  In  Christian  education  the  national  theology  of 
the  Jews  held  the  chief  place,  but  was  rationalized,  and 
thereby  universalized,  by  means  of  Greek  science.  Ori- 
entalism triumphed  over  Hellenism:  Keason  became  the 
handmaid  of  Faith.  This  fact  cannot  be  too  strongly  in- 
sisted upon,  because  it  furnishes  the  key  to  the  educa- 


126  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

tion  of  the  entire  Middle  Age,  in  which  the  supernatural 
plays  the  chief  part,  and  science  and  nature  become 
thralls.* 

But  though  Orientalism  triumphed  over  Hellenism  in 
the  Christian  schools  of  the  Greek  world,  Hellenism  and 
science  were  by  no  means  despised.  Great  men,  like 
Clement  and  Origen,  the  founders  of  philosophic  Chris- 
tian theology,  held  them  in  high  esteem.  Nay,  the 
latter  even  maintained  that  the  true,  the  spiritual 
Christianity  was  that  which  was  grasped  in  the  abstract 
forms  of  Greek  thought  (71/0)0-49),  the  historical  Chris- 
tianity of  the  New  Testament,  and  Christ  himself,  being 
merely  a  concession  to  the  natural  man,  for  whom  the 
divine  had  to  be  revealed  in  the  flesh  (-Treo-Tt?).  He 
thus  came  perilously  near  dropping  the  historical  ele- 
ment in  Christianity  altogether,!  as  did  his  teacher, 
Ammonius,  and  fellow-pupil,  Plotinus,  the  founders  of 
Neo-Platomsm.J  Indeed,  it  is  not  unlikely  that,  but* 
for  the  influence  of  Western  or  Eoman  Christianity,  the 
Christianity  of  the  Greek  world  might  have  been  a  sort 
of  Neo-Platonism,  in  which  Hellenism  would  have  held 
the  first  place.  But  of  this  more  in  the  next  chapter. 

*  On  the  entire  relation  of  Christianity  to  Hellenism  see  Hatch, 
The  Influence  of  Greek  Ideas  and  Usages  upon  the  Christian  Church 
( Hibbert  Lectures  for  1888). 

t  His  twofold  Christianity  was  condemned  by  the  Church.  See  Bigg, 
Christian  Platonists,  pp.  276  seq. ;  Denzinger,  Enchiridion  Symbolorum 
et  Deflnitionum^  pp.  57-62. 

J  Neo-Platonism,  like  Manichasism  and  Mazdeism,  is  a  form  of  Mesaian- 
iam  or  Redemption.  See  Harnack,  Dogmengeschichte,  VoL  L,  pp.  719- 
37.  On  ManichaeiBin  see  ibid.}  pp.  737-51. 


CHAPTER  III. 
PATRISTIC  EDUCATION 

Nature  and  intellect — they  are  not  named  to  Christiana. 

For  doing  so  we  burn  atheists, 

Because  such  speeches  are  most  dangerous. 

Nature  is  sin,  intellect  is  devil. 

Between  them  they  foster  doubt, 

Their  misshapen  mongrel  offspring. 

— GOETHE,  Faust,  Ft.  II.,  Act  I. 

The  conversion  of  Constantino  meant  nothing  less  than  the  de- 
feat of  the  State  and  the  victory  of  the  Church,  the  defeat  of  the 
mundane  culture  of  the  classical  period  and  the  victory  of  the  super- 
sensual  culture  of  the  coming  time.  The  Christianization  of  the 
State  involved  its  overthrow.  The  world-denying  religiosity  of 
Christianity  had  absorbed  the  world-ruling  thought  of  the  Roman 
Empire. — VON  EICKEN,  Mittdalt.  Weltansch.,  p.  119. 

The  Oriental  cults  satisfied  emotional  cravings,  which  found  no 
stimulus  for  devotion  in  the  arid  abstractions  of  the  old  Latin 
creed  or  in  the  brilliant  anthropomorphism  of  Greece.  They 
aroused  and  cultivated,  often  to  a  dangerous  degree,  intense  and 
ecstatic  feeling.  In  their  mysteries,  if  they  did  not  teach  a  higher 
morality,  they  raised  the  worshipper  above  the  level  of  old  conven- 
tional conformity  and  satisfied  in  some  way  the  longing  for  com- 
munion with  the  deity  and  assurance  of  a  life  beyond  the  grave. — 
DILL,  Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western  Empire^ 
pp.  63  seq. 

A  group  of  ideas — God,  Messiah,  Holiness — which 
had  originally  grown  up  among  the  oppressed  and  ex- 
iled Jews  with  reference  to  restoration  to  their  native 
land  and  to  political  power,  had  among  the  Christians 

127 


128  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

been  transformed  into  a  theory  of  fallen  man's  restora- 
tion to  God  in  a  kingdom  beyond  the  clouds,*  and  this 
theory  had  found  philosophical  expression  through  con- 
tact with  Greek  thought.  Thus  arose  the  dogmatic 
theology  of  the  Church  Fathers,  in  which  the  dogmas 
received  their  material  and  authority  from  Judaism, 
their  universal  form  and  metaphysical  import  from 
Hellenism,  f  In  lands  where  Greek  language  and  thought 
prevailed,  the  Hellenic,  philosophical  element  con- 
tinually threatened  to  swamp  the  Jewish  and  give  rise 
to  a  purely  rational  religion  (Gnosticism);  but  else- 
where, and  especially  in  Latin-speaking  lands,  the  case 
was  different.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (A.D.  70), 
the  centre  of  Judaic  J  or  non-Hellenic  Christianity  was 
Rome.  In  the  powerful  Roman  community,  and  in  the 
numerous  communities  dependent  upon  it,  the  Jewish, 
traditional,  non-philosophic  element  steadily  kept  the 
upper  hand,  and  did  its  best  to  repel  the  Hellenic  ele- 
ment. This  is  clearly  shown  by  the  "  Apostles'  Creed  " 
— originally  the  baptismal  formula  of  the  Roman  com- 
munity— which  does  not  contain  a  vestige  of  Greek 
thought  or  of  metaphysical  theory.  But  even  when,  in 
the  interests  of  a  catholic  or  universal  faith,  it  accepted 
the  Nicene  Creed,  full  of  Greek  thought  and  subtlety, 
it  did  not  for  long  allow  that  thought  to  master  it,  but 
remained  true  to  Orientalism  and  revelation. §  In  pro- 

*A  Messiah  who  said  "My  Kingdom  is  not  of  this  world"  could  not, 
of  coarse,  be  accepted  by  orthodox  Jews,  who  expected  a  kingdom  of 
this  world. 

t  Rome  supplied  the  organism  and  diffusive  power. 

%  Ebionitism  or  purely  Jewish  Christianity  is  not  here  meant.  It  had 
retired  to  Petra,  in  the  desert,  before  A.D.  70. 

§  This  is  clearly  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  succeeded  in  upholding  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  "  flesh,"  a  doctrine  entirely  repugnant 
to  the  Greeks  and  their  followers. 


PATEISTIC   EDUCATION  129 

portion  as  the  Eoman  community's  influence  widened 
and  deepened,  and  the  Roman  bishop  assumed  authority, 
in  the  same  degree  the  Jewish  traditional  element 
gained  ascendancy,  and  Greek  Gnosticism  was  extruded; 
in  a  word,  faith  took  the  place  of  science;  the  super- 
natural of  the  natural.  Under  such  circumstances  sci- 
ence and  learning,  of  course,  languished,  and  at  last 
virtually  died  out,  leaving  the  field  to  faith,  which, 
when  dissociated  from  science,  always  degenerates  into 
gross  superstition.  The  Latin  fathers,  unlike  the  Greek, 
almost  from  the  first  manifested  dislike  and  opposition 
to  Pagan  learning.  Tertullian  (A.D.  160-240?)  would 
suppress  it  altogether  as  dishonoring  to  God;  Augustine 
(354-430),  once  a  good  scholar,  was  ready,  after  his 
conversion,  to  turn  his  back  upon  pagan  learning,  de- 
claring that  "  it  is  the  uneducated  who  carry  the  King- 
dom of  heaven."  Jerome  (340-420),  though  sometimes 
recommending  the  study  of  pagan  poets,  even  for 
women,  on  one  occasion  speaks  of  their  work  as  mere 
food  of  demons,  and  his  scheme  of  female  education 
is  suitable  only  for  nuns  of  the  strictest  order,  such  as 
he  superintended  in  the  convents  of  Bethlehem.  This 
attitude  of  the  Latin  fathers  is  easily  comprehended, 
when  we  remember  (1)  that  pagan  learning  was  inex- 
tricably bound  up  with  the  pagan  ideal  of  mundane, 
civic  life,  so  utterly  at  variance  with  the  supermundane, 
spiritual  life  which  the  Church  sought  to  cultivate;  (2) 
that,  in  their  time,  that  learning,  always  merely  formal, 
and  as  devoid  of  scientific  content  as  incapable  of  im- 
parting intellectual  and  moral  stimulus,  had  sunk  down 
into  a  dull,  sapless  routine,  turning  out  chattering, 
versifying  pedants,  without  moral  earnestness,  love  of 
9 


130  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

truth,  or  literary  taste.  Pagan  learning  had  died  of 
inanity  before  Christian  supernaturalism  dug  its  grave.* 
The  Eule  of  St.  Benedict,  a  man  of  noble  Eoman  descent 
(480-543?),  is  already  written  in  barbarous  Latin,  and 
his  biographer,  Gregory  the  Great  (died  604),  severely 
reproved  a  bishop  for  giving  instruction  in  Grammar 
(Literature),  declaring  that  the  divine  word  was  inde- 
pendent of  its  rules.  "  My  brother,"  he  says,  "  I  have 
learnt  what  I  cannot  think  of  without  pain  and  shame, 
that  you  have  thought  proper  to  teach  Grammar  to  cer- 
tain persons.  Learn  then  how  sad  and  awful  a  thing  it 
is  that  a  bishop  should  deal  with  things,  of  which  even 
a  layman  ought  to  be  ignorant." 

But,  with  all  its  contempt  for  the  learning  of  van- 
quished paganism,  Christianity  could  not  well  exist 
without  some  sort  of  intellectual  culture,  however 
slight.  Hence,  from  time  to  time,  efforts  were  made 
to  keep  alive  the  traditions  of  education,  especially  by 
converts  who,  in  their  youth,  had  attended  the  old 
grammar  and  rhetorical  schools.  Martianus  Capella,  an 
African  rhetorician,  probably  contemporary  with  Au- 
gustine, wrote  a  sort  of  Encyclopaedia  of  Education,  a 
fantastic  work,  entitled  The  Nuptials  of  Mercury  and 
Philology.  This  for  hundreds  of  years  was  the  text- 
book of  the  Seven  Liberal  Arts,  which  appear  here  for 
the  first  time.  The  popularity  of  this  miserable  com- 
pend  throws  a  lurid  light  on  the  condition  of  learning 

*Apollinaria  Sidonius  (431-484  ?),  the  princely  Bishop  of  Auvergne, 
who,  like  others  of  his  class,  was  very  proud  of  his  pagan  learning,  and 
inclined  to  make  high  literary  pretensions,  notes  the  decay  of  learning  in 
his^ime,  declaring  that  "young  people  no  longer  study,  teachers  are 
without  pupils,  learning  pines  and  dies."  See  Dill,  Roman  Society 
in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western  Empire,  p.  167,  and  the  whole  of 
Bk.  V. 


PATRISTIC  EDUCATION  131 

in  the  centuries  after  the  fifth.  Boetius  (470-524?), 
"the  last  of  the  Eomans,"  did  his  best,  by  means  of 
translations  from  the  Greek  and  other  works,  to  recom- 
mend serious  study  to  his  countrymen.*  St.  Benedict, 
in  his  Eule,  laid  upon  his  monks  the  duty  of  reading 
during  some  part  of  every  day,  and  Cassiodorus  (480- 
575),  the  favorite  of  Theodoric,  spent  the  last  thirty 
years  of  his  life  mostly  in  the  preparation  of  educa- 
tional manuals,  many  of  which  still  exist.  Isidore  of 
Seville,  who  died  about  636,  did  much  the  same  thing. 
Of  his  many  extant  works  the  most  important  is  his 
Orlginum  sive  Etymologiarum,  Libri  XX.,  a  compen- 
dious Encyclopedia  of  all  the  learning  of  his  day. 
Finally,  in  Britain,  the  Venerable  Bede  (673-735)  did 
his  best  to  rescue  for  his  countrymen  what  learning  still 
remained  in  the  world,  in  the  hope  of  better  days  to 
come.f 

But,  in  spite  of  all  these  efforts,  the  thick  cloud  of 
superstition  and  ignorance  sank,  heavier  and  heavier, 
over  what  had  once  been  the  Eoman  Empire,  and  what 
was  now  the  domain  of  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church. 
The  deepest  darkness  was  reached  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, when  learning  had  almost  entirely  vanished  from 
continental  Europe,  and  had  taken  what  seemed  a  last 

*  There  is  now  hardly  any  doubt  that  Boe'tius,  despite  his  pagan  De 
Consolatione  Philosophic,  was  a  Christian.  See  Harnack,  Dogmengesch. . 
Vol.  III.,  p.  30,  noteS. 

t  At  the  abbey  of  Wearmouth,  Bede  "  enjoyed  advantages  which  could 
not  perhaps  have  been  found  anywhere  else  in  Europe  at  the  time ;  per- 
fect access  to  all  the  existing  sources  of  learning  in  the  West.  Nowhere 
else  could  he  acquire  at  once  the  Irish,  the  Roman,  the  Gallican,  and  the 
Canterbury  learning ;  the  accumulated  stores  of  books  which  Benedict 
[Biscop]  had  bought  at  Rome  and  at  Vienne  ;  or  the  disciplinary  instruc- 
tion drawn  from  the  monasteries  on  the  Continent,  as  well  as  from  the 
Irish  missionaries." — Bishop  Stubbs,  article  JBede,  in  Diet,  of  Christ. 
Biog.,  quoted  in  West's  Alcuin,  pp.  29  seq. 


132  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

refuge  in  the  Far  West,  in  the  British  Isles,  especially 
Ireland,  and  in  the  Far  East,  in  Syria,  where  the 
Catholic  Church  had  little  or  no  influence.  From  these 
remote  regions  it  returned  in  due  time,  by  different 
routes  and  through  different  media,  to  its  old  seats.  A 
movement  started  by  Irish  and  English  monks  in  the 
last  years  of  the  eighth  century  was  met,  three  or  four 
centuries  later,  by  a  movement  originating  in  the  schools 
of  Syria  and  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  apostles  of 
victorious  Islam.  Before  we  speak  of  these,  and  the 
results  of  them,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  Muslim 
Education. 

First  of  all,  however,  a  word  of  warning.  Those  who 
are  disposed  to  blame  the  Church  severely  for  allowing 
education  to  lapse,  and  superstition  to  run  riot,  should 
remember  two  things:  (1)  that  the  inroads  of  the 
Northern  barbarians  were  to  blame  for  much  that  is 
laid  at  the  Church's  door;  (2)  that  the  old  education 
was  hopelessly  bound  up  with  a  narrow,  bigoted  Eoman 
nationalism,  which  it  was  one  of  the  main  objects  of 
the  Church  to  break  down  in  favor  of  a  universal  hu- 
manism. We  may  declaim  against  the  "Dark  Ages" 
as  much  as  we  like — and  there  is  some  reason  for  such 
declamation — but  we  should  not  forget  that  it  was  un- 
der cover  of  their  darkness  that  the  idea  of  a  universal 
human  brotherhood,  conceived  in  ancient  times,  was 
born  into  the  world  of  reality.  It  is  true  that  the  citi- 
zenship of  this  brotherhood  was  supposed,  at  first,  to 
be  in  heaven  with  its  father,  and  this  had  a  sad  effect 
upon  earthly  affairs;  but  in  due  time,  with  the  revival 
of  learning  and  the  rehabilitation  of  reason,  it  descended 
to  the  earth,  and  the  modern  world  is  the  result. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

MUSLIM  EDUCATION 

Bead,  in  the  name  of  thy  Lord  who  created — Created  man  of 
concreted  blood. — Read,  by  thy  Lord  most  gracious,  who  taught  the 
use  of  the  pen — Taught  man  what  he  knoweth  not. — Qor&n,  XCVL, 
1  seq.  (Muhammad's  earliest  revelation). 

The  different  Arab  tribes  had  different  religions.  .  .  .  There 
were  some  among  them  who  spoke  of  the  resurrection,  and  believed 
that  the  man  whose  camel  was  killed  over  his  grave  would  rise  up 
riding,  while  the  man  whose  camel  was  not  so  killed  would  rise  up 
walking.  And  as  to  the  learning  of  the  Arabs,  which  they  used  to 
boast  about,  it  was  confined  to  a  knowledge  of  their  language,  a 
regulation  of  their  speech,  composition  of  poems,  and  compiling  of 
speeches ;  and,  along  with  this,  a  knowledge  of  the  times  and  places 
of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  constellations,  and  an  acquaintance 
with  the  libration  of  the  stars,  and  with  their  sending  of  rain,  as  far 
as  such  could  be  attained  by  an  extraordinary  degree  of  care  and 
length  of  experience.  Such  knowledge  was  sought  on  account  of 
its  practical  bearing  on  the  affairs  of  life,  and  not  from  any  scientific 
interest.  As  to  knowledge  of  philosophy,  God  did  not  endow  them 
with  any  of  it,  or  make  their  nature  suitable  for  taking  any  trouble 
about  it.  This  was  their  condition  under  paganism. — ABO  'L  FEDA. 

For  the  last  time  in  Arab  history,  Al  Ghazzali,  to  a  certain  de- 
gree, avails  himself  of  the  right  of  free  speculation,  in  order,  in 
desperation,  to  betray  it  into  the  hands  of  faith.  .  .  .  Like  a 
despairing  sceptic,  he  leaps,  with  suicidal  intent,  into  the  All-God, 
in  order  to  kill  all  artificial  reflection. — GOSCHE,  Ghazz&lis  Leben  u. 
Werke,  pp.  242  seq. 

By  the  year  600  A.D.,  the  triumph  of  the  Oriental  ele- 
ment in  Christianity  had  well-nigh  banished  learning 

133 


134  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

and  education  from  the  domains  of  the  Eoman  Church, 
giving  place  to  a  gloomy,  unquestioning  faith  which  sank 
ever  deeper  and  deeper  in  the  mire  of  superstition.  What 
enlightenment  survived  had  found  a  home  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  Eoman  Empire — in  Ireland,  in  the  extreme 
West;  in  Syria,  in  the  Far  East.  Of  Irish  learning  we 
shall  speak  later  on. 

Syria,  with  its  cities  of  Antioch,  Edessa,  Harran, 
Nisibis,  etc.,  had,  like  the  rest  of  the  East,  been  sub- 
jected to  the  influence  of  Greek  culture  and  learning 
soon  after  the  time  of  Alexander.  For  Greek  philosophy, 
particularly  Platonism,  the  cultivated  Syrians  had  shown 
a  decided  taste,  combining  it  with  their  own  mythology 
into  a  mongrel  and  fantastic  creed,  which  later  on  be- 
came the  parent  of  Christian  mysticism.*  In  Christian 
times,  when  the  narrow  fanaticism  of  the  imperial 
church  more  and  more  discountenanced  learning  and  free 
thought,  Greek  scholars  and  thinkers  fled  beyond  its 
jurisdiction  into  Syria,  where  learning  still  had  a  foot- 
hold in  the  schools  of  Edessa  and  Nisibis,f  and  added  to 
the  distinction  of  these.  Especially  was  this  the  case  in 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  When  the  theology  of 
Nestorius  and  the  Antiochene  (Syrian)  school  was  con- 
demned by  the  Church  (431  A.D.),  many  of  its  adherents 
fled  to  Nisibis,  and,  under  the  leadership  of  Barsumas, 

*  On  the  Platonized  paganism  of  the  Harranians.  see  Chwolsohn's  Die 
Ssabier,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  301-541.  Very  many  of  the  post-Aristotelean 
"  Greek  "  philosophers  were  Syrians,  especially  after  the  Christian  era. 

t  "The  intellectual  centre  of  the  East  Syrian  -  Persian  Church,  the 
school  of  Edessa,  with  its  offshoots  in  Nisibis,  stands  in  close  relations 
with  Antioch.  But  in  this  region  there  now  begins  a  most  lively  literary 
activity  in  the  Syrian  language.  To  the  partly  older  translations  of  the 
Bible  are  added  numerous  translations  of  Greek  ecclesiastical  treatises, 
as  well  as  original  productions.  The  founder  of  this  Syrian  literature 
is  the  Mesopotamian  Ephraem,  who  died  in  379." — Mttller,  Kirchenge* 
schichte,  VoL  L,  p.  196. 


MUSLIM   EDUCATION  135 

rent  the  Syrian  Church  away  from  Catholicism,  and  gave 
the  school  of  that  city  a  fresh  importance.  "  In  the  school 
of  Nisibis  the  Church  possessed  an  institution  which  for 
centuries  secured  her  a  system  of  higher  education,  and, 
therewith,  an  important  social  and  political  position.  To 
the  older  literature,  consisting  of  translations,  there  was 
added,  from  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  onward,  a 
large  number  of  philosophic,  scientific,  and  medical 
treatises  belonging  to  Greek  antiquity,  especially  the 
works  of  Aristotle.*  Through  these  Greek  wisdom  and 
learning,  clothed  in  Syrian  attire,  found  a  home  on  these 
borders  of  Christendom."  f 

Thus  it  was  that,  in  the  centuries  from  the  fifth  to  the 
ninth,  the  chief  seats  of  learning  were  in  the  cities  of 
Syria.  But  before  it  could  be  restored  to  the  old  culture- 
lands  of  Europe,  there  was  required  a  new  social  and 
religious  movement,  capable  of  rousing  the  Catholic 
Church  from  its  "  dogmatic  slumbers."  Such  a  move- 
ment was  Islam. 

Muhammad  (570--632A.D.),the originator  of  this,  had, 
as  a  young  man,  travelled  through  Arabia  and  Syria,  and 
there  had  come  in  contact  with  Jews,  Ebionite  and  Nes- 
torian  Christians,  and  Sabians  (Baptists),  all  of  them 
"  peoples  of  the  book,"  that  is,  peoples  possessing,  and 
bowing  before,  certain  written  records,  which  they  be- 
lieved to  be  authoritative  revelations  from  a  supreme 
Lord.  Having  become  intensely  convinced  that  what  his 
own  bookless,  lordless,  ever-warring  people  needed,  in 
order  to  hold  them  together,  and  give  them  strength,  was 

*  The  Nestorians,  and,  indeed,  the  Antiochene  Theological  School,  were 
deeply  imbued  with  Aristotelianism.  The  Nestorian  "heresy"  was 
largely  due  to  it. 

tMiiller,  Kirchengeschichte,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  278  seq. 


136  THE  HISTOEY   OF  EDUCATION 

a  book  and  a  lord,  he  set  to  work,  with  more  or  less  con- 
scious intent,  to  supply  both.  With  his  ardent,  somewhat 
hysteric,  nature,  he  easily  came  to  believe  that  revelations 
from  the  "Lord  of  the  Worlds"  had  been  vouch- 
safed to  him.*  The  result  was  the  Qoran,  a  strange, 
chaotic,  tiresome  book,  composed  of  Jewish,  Christian, 
Sabian,  and  Arab  elements,  with  a  distinct  preponder- 
ance of  the  first.  It  was  not  reduced  to  its  present  form 
till  some  time  after  his  death,  f 

Muhammad's  enterprise  was  an  unparalleled  success. 
His  rigid,  fatalistic  monotheism,  inculcated  with  the 
earnestness  of  a  self-confident  prophet,  and  not  seldom 
at  the  point  of  the  sword,  was  just  what  the  Arabs  needed. 
Between  the  date  of  the  Hijrah  (622)  and  that  of  his 
death  (632),  the  whole  of  Arabia  was  converted  to  Islam, 
and  prepared  to  march  under  one  banner  to  the  conquest 
of  the  world. 

So  long  as  Islam  was  confined  to  unreflecting,  unphil- 
osophic  Arabs,  that  is,  so  long  as  it  remained  a  mere 
faith,  it  needed  no  support  from  learning,  and  called  for 
no  special  education.  The  "signs"  (verses)  of  the 
Qoran  could  be  communicated  by  word  of  mouth,  and 
committed  to  memory;  and  all  truth  not  contained  in 
these  was  vain.  Letters  were  not  necessary,  and,  indeed, 
it  is  almost  certain  that  Muhammad  himself  could  neither 
read  nor  write.  When,  however,  Islam  was  carried  by 
the  sword  beyond  the  bounds  of  Arabia,  into  the  lands 
of  ancient  culture,  Syria  (635),  Babylonia  (637),  As- 
Byria  (640),  Egypt  (642),  etc.,  the  case  was  different. 

*The  earliest  of  these,  dating  from  A.D.  611,  is  placed  at  the  head  of 
this  chapter.     It  clearly  shows  his  chief  intent, 
t  See  Noldeke,  Oeschichte  des  Qordns,  throughout. 


MUSLIM  EDUCATION  137 

Before  it  could  hope  for  acceptance  from  the  inhabitants 
of  these,  most  of  whom  were  Christians,  it  had,  like 
Christianity,  to  clothe  itself  in  the  universal  forms  of 
Greek  thought,  and  recommend  itself  to  reason.  This 
was  done  to  some  extent  in  Damascus,  but  afterwards,  to 
a  far  greater  extent,  in  the  cities  of  Iraq — Bagdad,  Basra, 
Kufa,  etc.  Here  the  works  of  the  Greek  philosophers,* 
physicians,  and  mathematicians  were  translated  into 
Arabic,f  partly  through  the  medium  of  Syriac,J  partly, 
perhaps,  directly  from  the  Greek.  Schools,  rivalling, 
and  even  surpassing,  those  of  Syria,  were  established,  and 
great  physicians,  mathematicians,  and  philosophers  be- 
gan to  appear.  Famous  among  them  were  Al  Kindi 
(about  800-870),  Al  Farabi  (a  Turk,  880-950  ±),  Ibn 
Sina  (Avicenna,  980-1037).  Thus,  from  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  ninth  century  to  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth, 
the  great  centres  of  learning  in  the  world  were  the  Mus- 
lim schools  of  Iraq.  The  effort  on  the  part  of  the  leaders 
of  these  schools  to  rationalize  the  doctrines  of  Islam,  had 
a  strong  tendency  to  undermine  its  supernatural  author- 
ity, and  to  substitute  for  it  a  sort  of  gnostic  mysticism, 
such  as  had  long  been  current  among  the  Syrian  Chris- 
tians^ This  naturally  aroused  the  suspicion  and  op- 
position of  the  fanatical  Arabs,  who  finally  succeeded  in 
putting  an  end  to  the  movement,  and  compelling  learn- 
ing and  reason  to  migrate  to  the  Far  West,  to  the  Muslim 

*  Especially  those  of  the  Syrian  favorite,  Aristotle,  who  thus  became 
for  the  Arabs,  "the  philosopher,"  simply. 

t  See  Steinschneider,  Die  arabischen  Uebersetzungen  aus  dem  Oriech- 
itchen,  Leipzig,  1897. 

t  See  Steinschneider,  ut  supra,  p.  6.  The  chief  translators  seem  to  have 
been  Nestorian  Christians  and  Harranian  pagans. 

§  Mysticism  is  at  home  in  Syria.  See  Frothingham,  Stephen  Bar 
Sudaili,  the  Syrian  Mystic,  and  the  Book  of  Hierotheos.  Leyden, 
1886. 


138  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

cities  of  Spain.  But  ere  this  took  place,  the  scholars  of 
Iraq  had  drawn  up  a  scheme  of  education  which,  for  com- 
pleteness and  thoroughness,  looks  in  vain  for  an  equal. 
It  was  due  to  a  small  number  of  earnest,  high-minded 
men,  forming  a  society  called  the  "  Brothers  of  Sincer- 
ity "  (Ilchwan  us  Safe?),  whose  aims  were,  in  the  inter- 
est of  truth  and  righteousness,  to  combat  the  fatalism  and 
fanaticism  of  Islam,  to  impart  as  complete  an  education 
as  the  science  of  the  time  rendered  possible,  and,  on  the 
basis  of  this,  to  initiate  a  perfect,  "  sincere,"  social  order 
of  the  Pythagorean  type.  In  other  words,  they  undertook 
to  render  the  harsh,  crude  superstition  of  the  Qoran  in- 
nocuous by  transmuting  it,  through  absorption,  into  the 
Neo-Platonic  Aristotelianism  then  popular  in  the  East. 
This  system  drew  its  doctrines  partly  from  the  genuine 
works  of  Aristotle,  and  partly  from  certain  spurious  trea- 
tises bearing  his  name,  but  really  due  to  the  Neo-Platon- 
ists,  and  containing  doctrines  widely  different  from  his — 
in  fact,  a  whole  system  of  evolutionary  agathism,  gov- 
erned by  spiritual  laws.  Chief  among  these  treatises  was 
the  so-called  "  Theology  of  Aristotle,"  *  an  abstract  of 
the  last  three  "  Enneads  "  of  Plotinus,  made,  apparently, 
by  Porphyry,  in  Syriac,  for  his  Syrian  countrymen  toward 
the  end  of  the  third  century  A.D.,  and  translated  into 
Arabic  first  of  all  philosophic  works.  Its  contents  largely 
determined  the  whole  subsequent  course  of  Arabic,  and 
later,  of  Jewish  and  Christian  thought,  f 

This  system  is  laid  down  in  an  Encyclopaedia,  which 
must  have  been  written  about  the  year  1000  A.D.,  and 

*  Translated  into  German  by  Dieterici,  Leipzig,  1883. 

t  Much  of  this  and  the  following  paragraphs  is  an  abbreviation  of  my 
article  "The  Brothers  of  Sincerity,"  in  the  International  Journal  of 
Ethics,  July,  1898. 


MUSLIM  EDUCATION  139 

which  was  printed  in  Calcutta,  for  the  first  time  in  1812, 
and  again  in  1842,  in  four  large  volumes.*  The  work  is 
divided  into  fifty-one  tracts,  which  -again  are  arranged 
under  four  heads: 

(I)  Propasdeutic  and  Logic,  13  treatises; 

(II)  Natural  Sciences,  17  treatises; 

(III)  The  Eational  World-Soul,  10  treatises; 

(IV)  Eevealed  Law,  11  treatises. 

In  this  arrangement  we  have  an  ascent  from  the  formal 
and  abstract  to  the  real  and  concrete.  The  introduction 
of  revelation  distinguishes  it  from  all  Greek  classifica- 
tions. To  pass  to  details: 

(I)  Propcedeutic  and  Logic 

No.  1  deals  with  number,  its  essence  and  multiplicity, 
showing  that  the  form  of  number  in  the  soul  corresponds 
to  form  in  material  things,  and  that  the  doctrine  of  num- 
ber is  the  spring  of  all  science  and  wisdom  (Pythagorean- 
ism). — No.  2  treats  of  Geometry,  and  aims  at  enabling 
the  soul  to  grasp  pure  forms,  apart  from  matter  (Platon- 
ism). — No.  3  deals  with  Astronomy,  and  shows  the  com- 
position of  the  stellar  world.  Its  purpose  is  to  rouse  the 
soul  to  a  longing  for  its  proper  home  among  the  spheres. 
Here  we  have  the  very  ancient  theory  which  identifies 
spiritual  elevation  with  distance  from  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  itself  regarded  as  the  centre  of  the  universe,  a 
theory  which  pervades  the  entire  Middle  Age,  and  finds 
classical  expression  in  the  Comedy  of  Dante. — No.  4 

*  It  has,  for  the  most  part,  been  translated  into  German  by  Professor 
Dieterici  of  Berlin,  and  published  in  a  number  of  separate  volumes.  See 
the  preface  to  his  Die  Philosophic  der  Araber  im  X.  Jahrhundert  n. 
Chr.,  Leipzig,  1876,  1879. 


140  THE  HISTORY   OP  EDUCATION 

treats  of  Geography,  showing  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere, 
and  giving  reasons  why  the  soul  descended  from  its  true 
home  into  this  world  (cf.  No.  50). — No.  5  deals  with 
Music,  showing  that  the  measures  of  music  are  so  many 
medicines  for  the  soul,  just  as  the  different  drugs  are  for 
the  body,  and  that  the  revolving  spheres,  by  rubbing 
against  each  other,  produce  tones  and  melodies.  It  aims 
to  inspire  the  soul  to  ascend  through  the  melodious 
spheres,  to  meet  the  spirits  of  prophets,  martyrs,  and 
mystic  seers. — No.  6  relates  to  Geometric  Number  or 
Quantity,  that  is,  to  the  theory  of  Symmetry  and  Esthet- 
ics (Fine  Arts). — No.  7  treats  of  the  different  Liberal 
Arts  or  Sciences,  and  guides  the  soul  to  a  unitary  concep- 
tion of  the  world  (Encyclopaedia  of  the  Sciences). — No.  8 
deals  with  the  Practical  Arts.  In  doing  so,  it  reveals  to 
the  soul  its  own  substance,  as  author  of  the  arts,  and  ita 
relation  to  the  body  and  its  members,  which  are  merely 
instruments  of  the  creative  soul  (Encyclopaedia  of  the 
Arts). — No.  9  examines  Temperaments  and  Character, 
with  a  view  to  enable  the  soul  to  attain  the  proper  mood 
and  develop  a  perfect  character  (Ethics). — These  nine 
tracts  present  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  field  or  matter  of 
Science.  The  next  four  deal  with  Logic,  or  the  form  of 
science. — No.  10  deals  with  Porphyry's  Introduction 
(Eia-ayfoyr))  on  the  five  "  words  " — Genus,  Species,  Dif- 
ference, Property,  and  Accident. — No.  11  discusses  Aris- 
totle's ten  Categories. — No.  12  his  De  Interpretatione 
(the  Proposition). — No.  13  his  Analytics  (Syllogism  and 
Method  of  Scientific  Proof).  Its  purpose  is  to  make  the 
soul  aware  of  its  own  forms  and  faculties. 


MUSLIM  EDUCATION  141 


(II)  The  Natural  Sciences 

No.  14  (1)  treats  of  Matter,  Form,  Space,  Time,  and 
Motion,  and  is  based  on  Aristotle's  Physics. — No.  15  (2) 
is  devoted  to  the  General  Form  of  the  Physical  World. 
Here,  as  in  I.  3,  we  have  the  mediaeval  theory  of  the  uni- 
verse, according  to  which  the  "  Throne  of  God  "  is  in  the 
outermost  sphere.*  It  shows  that  all  action  in  the  uni- 
verse is  due  to  the  universal  soul,  acting  in  obedience  to 
God. — No.  16  (3)  treats  of  Genesis  and  Decay,  that  is, 
of  the  four  elements,  and  their  transmutation  into  each 
other  under  the  influence  of  the  stars  and  revolving 
spheres  (Mediaeval  substitute  for  Chemistry). — No.  17 
(4)  deals  with  Meteorology,  and  is  based  on  Aristotle's 
Meteor  ologica. — No.  18  (5)  is  devoted  to  Mineralogy, 
enumerating  the  different  minerals  and  trying  to  account 
for  their  origin.  Its  purpose  is  to  show  that  the  first 
product  of  the  universal  soul  is  the  sublunary  world,  and 
that  in  this  the  partial  souls  (all  individual  souls  are  parts 
of  the  universal  soul)  begin  their  career.  Starting  in 
minerals  at  the  earth's  centre,  they  advance,  through 
plants  and  animals,  up  to  man,  and  thence  rise,  through 
the  superlunary  spheres,  as  angels,  up  to  union  with  God. 
Here  we  have  the  Arab  doctrine  of  evolution,  which 
hardly  differs  from  the  Darwinian,  except  in  not  recog- 
nizing the  "  struggle  for  existence  "  as  an  agent  in  the 
process.f  Instead  of  this,  the  older  theory  puts  the  nat- 
ural desire  of  all  beings  to  return  to  their  source.  In  this 
tract  and  in  the  following,  the  "  Theology  of  Aristotle  " 

*SeeQoran.  II,  256. 

t  See  Dieterici,  Der  Darwinismus  im  zehnten  und  neunzehnten  Jahr- 
hundert.     Leipzig,  1878. 


142  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

IB  largely  drawn  upon  (Evolutionism). — No.  19  (6)  deals 
with  the  Essence  of  Nature,  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
acts  upon  the  four  elements,  producing  the  three  king- 
doms of  nature.  Its  purpose  is  to  show  the  action  of  the 
universal  soul,  and  its  relation  to  the  spheral  intelli- 
gences.— No.  20  (7)  is  devoted  to  Botany,  showing  how 
the  various  plants  are  pervaded  by  the  plant-soul,  how 
they  spring  up  and  grow,  and  what  their  uses  are.  Stress 
is  laid  upon  the  fact  that  there  is  no  break  between  the 
mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  worlds. — No.  21  (8)  treats 
of  Zoology,  following  Aristotle  mainly.  The  highest  of 
the  animals  is  man,  who  forms  the  link  between  them  and 
the  angels,  the  bridge  between  hell  and  heaven.* — The 
next  nine  tracts  deal  with  man,  as  a  physical,  sensuous 
being. — No.  22  (9)  investigates  the  structure  of  the  hu- 
man body,  Anatomy,  and  finds  that  man  is  a  microcosm, 
a  state,  in  which  the  soul  is  king,  the  representative  of 
God  on  earth,  a  book  written  by  God's  own  hand.  In 
knowing  himself,  man  knows  God.— No.  23  (10)  treats 
of  Sense-perception  and  the  Perceived,  and  contains  a 
whole  physiological  theory  of  cognition.  It  shows  how 
the  senses  seize  their  percepts  and  carry  them  to  the  fac- 
ulty of  imagination,  whose  organ  is  in  the  front  part  of 
the  brain,  whence  they  pass  on  to  the  faculty  of  judg- 

*  This  tract  contains  a  delightful  story  entitled  "The  Case  of  the 
Animals  vs.  Man  before  the  King  of  the  Genii."  The  scene  is  laid  on  an 
island  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  animals,  claimed  by  men  as  slaves, 
plead  their  own  cause,  and  present  a  picture  of  human  injustice  and 
cruelty  that  is  truly  appalling.  Men  are  defeated  at  every  point,  and  the 
case  would  go  against  them,  but  for  the  fact  of  their  immortality.  On  the 
ground  of  this,  that  men  are  ends  in  themselves,  the  king  of  the  genii 
counsels  the  animals  to  serve  them,  but  strongly  enjoins  on  men  to  treat 
them  kindly,  and  not  overtax  them.  The  deep  human  feeling  of  this 
story  bears  testimony  to  the  high  culture  of  the  Brothers  of  Sincerity." 
Translated  by  Dieterici  under  the  title,  Der  Streit  zwischen  Thier  und 
Mentch,  Berlin,  1858. 


MUSLIM  EDUCATION"  143 

ment,  in  the  middle  part  of  the  brain,  where  they  are 
again  distinguished  and  seized  in  their  true  essence. 
Hence,  again,  they  pass  on  to  the  faculty  of  retention,  in 
the  hinder  part  of  the  brain,  where  they  lie  ready  to  be 
recalled  into  consciousness  by  reminiscence.  From  this 
they  proceed  to  the  faculty  of  speech,  which  lies  above 
the  tongue,  and  by  which  they  are  translated  into  words, 
which,  when  accompanied  by  meanings,  issuing  from 
the  soul,  form  significant  speech.  Hence,  also,  they  pro- 
•ceed  to  the  faculty  of  action,  whose  organs  are  the  hands. 
These  record  them  in  books,  to  be  preserved  for  future 
generations.  Thus  the  experience  of  the  race  is  accumu- 
lated and  preserved  in  literature. — No.  24  (11)  deals 
with  the  Process  of  Generation,  Conception,  and  Birth, 
the  union  of  the  soul  with  the  embryo,  and  the  influ- 
ence of  the  stars  upon  the  temperament  and  character  of 
the  child.  Here  we  have  a  whole  system  of  Astrology,  as 
affecting  human  character. — No.  25  (12)  treats  of  Man 
as  a  Microcosm,  in  form  similar  to  the  Macrocosm,  and 
having  equivalents  to  the  angels,  genii,  satans,  and  ani- 
mal spirits  of  the  latter,  and  shows  that  he  resumes  in 
himself  the  corporeal  and  spiritual  worlds  and  the  mean- 
ing of  all  that  exists. — No.  26  (13)  treats  of  the  Partial 
Soul,  showing  how  it  grows  through  the  human  body, 
and  how  it  may,  before  or  after  death,  become  an  angel. 
— No.  27  (14)  investigates  the  Limits  of  Human  Knowl- 
edge, and  shows  that  man  may  attain  to  a  knowledge  of 
his  Creator. — No.  28  (15)  treats  of  Life  and  Death  and 
the  meaning  of  them,  showing  why  the  rational  soul  is 
united  with  the  body  till  death,  which  is  to  be  welcomed 
as  a  spiritual  birth. — No.  29  (16)  considers  the  Nature  of 
Spiritual  and  Bodily  Pain  and  Pleasure,  and  how  these 


144  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

are  felt  by  disembodied  spirits. — No.  30  (17)  treats  of 
the  Nature  and  Function  of  Language,  and  shows  how 
there  came  to  be  different  languages. 

Having  thus  obtained  a  description  of  sensible  nature, 
we  next  arise  to  a  consideration  of  its  system,  as  an  ex- 
pression of  reason  and  a  norm  of  ethical  life.  It  is  a  char- 
acteristic of  all  medieval  thought  from  the  days  of  the 
Neo-Platonists  onwards,  that,  in  making  the  system  of 
the  visible  world  a  manifestation  of  goodness,  reason,  and 
soul,  it  makes  it  ethical.  Its  universe  is  an  emanation* 
from  God,  diminishing  in  intensity  as,  by  receding  from 
him,  it  divides  into  many.  The  nearer  anything  is  to  the ' 
One,  the  higher  is  its  grade  of  being.  He  (1)  is  aboye 
subsistence,  completion,  perfection.  From  Him  ema- 
nate (2)  Eeason,  subsistent,  complete,  perfect;  through 
Reason  (3)  Soul,  subsistent  and  complete;  through  both  of 
these  (4)  Primal  Matter,  which  is  merely  subsistent.  God 
is  "  the  One,  the  Pure,"  standing  to  the  universe  in  the 
same  relation  as  unity  to  number.  Eeason,  answering  to 
duality,  is,  because  it  emanates  from  God,  who  is;  it  sub- 
sists, because  God  continually  pours  upon  it  His  overflow 
of  good;  it  is  complete,  because  it  accepts  this  overflow; 
it  is  perfect,  because  it  communicates  this  overflow  to  the 
Soul.  The  Soul  subsists,  because  it  emanates  from  Rea- 
son, which  subsists;  it  is  complete,  because  Reason  pours 
upon  it  the  overflow  received  from  God;  it  is  not  perfect, 
because  it  cannot  again  communicate  this  overflow  to 
Primal  Matter,  for  the  reason  that  this,  not  being  com- 
plete, cannot  receive  it.  The  Soul,  therefore,  finds  itself 
in  this  position,  that,  unless  it  can  make  matter  complete, 
it  can  never  itself  be  perfect.  Its  whole  effort,  therefore, 
is  to  complete  matter.  In  its  endeavor  to  pour  out  the 


MUSLIM  EDUCATION  145 

divine  overflow  upon  it,  it  creates  the  physical  universe, 
whose  incompleteness  is  shown  by  its  motion;  for  the 
complete  moves  not.  In  this  way  are  formed  (5)  Second- 
ary, or  Tri-dimensional  Matter,  i.e.,  Body  (6),  the  Ex- 
tended Universe;  (7)  Nature,  sublimary  and  transient; 
(8)  the  Four  Elements;  (9)  Things  or  Products.  In 
these,  the  Soul  having  at  last  reached  the  lowest  depth  of 
multiplicity,  begins  a  process  of  unification,  whereby  it 
perfects  itself  and  completes  matter.  This  is  called  the 
Eeturn  (Ma'ad,  sometimes  rendered  Eesurrection).  It 
is  exactly  what  we  should  call  Evolution,  whose  existence 
is  thus  accounted  for.  Under  the  unifying  influence  of 
the  Soul,  Matter  becomes,  first,  minerals,  then  plants, 
then  animals,  and,  lastly,  man,  who  gradually  ascends 
above  transience,  through  the  various  moving  spheres, 
until  he  reaches  the  quiet  heaven  of  the  Universal  Soul, 
which  can  now  pour  upon  him  the  divine  overflow. 
Through  this  he  turns  to  pure,  complete,  perfect  Eeason; 
through  it  he  becomes  perfect,  and  enters  into  direct 
union  with  God.  Thus  the  whole  process  of  the  universe 
is  a  going  forth  from  the  absolute  unity  of  God  to  the 
absolute  multiplicity  of  matter,  and  back  again  from  this 
to  the  unity  of  God.  The  world  is  from  God  and  to  God.* 

(Ill)  The  Rational  World-Soul 

No.  31  (1)  discusses  the  Principles  of  Eeason,  accord- 
ing to  Pythagoras,  and  shows  how  God,  in  creating,  ar- 
ranged the  world  on  a  basis  of  number  drawn  from 

*See  Theology  of  Aristotle,  Book  X. ;  Liber  de  Causis,  §  21  (Edit.  Bar- 
denhewer).  In  a  system  like  this  there  is  no  distinction  between  Creation 
and  Fall  The  Creation  is  the  Fall,  just  as  the  Return  is  Redemption. 
God  creates,  the  Soul  redeems.  The  Mystic  Trinity  is  God,  Reason,  Soul. 

10 


146  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

unity. — No.  32  (2)  states  the  Principles  of  Reason,  ac- 
cording to  the  "  Brothers  of  Sincerity,"  and  gives  the 
grounds  for  the  origin  of  the  world,  and  the  mediate 
causes  for  all  existence. — No.  33  (3)  discusses  the  saying 
of  the  philosophers,  that  the  Universe  is  a  Great,  Good 
Man,  endowed  with  intellect  and  soul,  a  living  world, 
ohedient  to  its  master. — No.  34  (4)  deals  with  Reason 
and  its  Object,  Being,  and  the  true  nature  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  Soul. — No.  35  (5)  treats  of  the  Revolutions 
of  the  Stars  and  Spheres,  and  shows  that  the  world  came 
into  being,  and  will  again  go  out  of  being. — No.  36  (6) 
treats  of  the  Love  of  the  Soul,  its  nature  and  origin,  and 
shows  that  the  object  of  this  love  is  God,  for  whom  all 
creatures  long. — No.  37  (7)  deals  with  the  Return  or 
Resurrection. — No.  38  (8)  deals  with  the  Various  Kinds 
of  Motion,  and  shows  how  the  world  proceeded  from  the 
Creator. — No.  39  (9)  treats  of  Causes  and  Effects,  and 
shows  that  they  form  a  continuous  circle.  Here  we  are 
shown  the  origin,  rules,  and  arrangement  of  the  sciences, 
and  taught  that  the  universe  is  a  self-determined  whole. 
— No.  40  (10)  treats  of  Definitions  and  Determinations, 
and  tries  to  show  the  ideal  essence  of  things,  simple  and 
compound. 

(IV)  The  Divine  Law,  or  Revelation 

No.  41  (1)  treats  of  Opinions,  Doctrines,  Dogmas,  Re- 
ligions, Prophecy.  It  shows  that  all  philosophies  and  all 
religions  seek  the  salvation  of  the  soul,  and  try  to  point 
out  the  way  whereby  it  ascends  from  the  hell  of  the  lower 
world  to  the  paradise  of  the  spheres — the  path  of  mystic 
vision. — No.  42  (2)  treats  of  the  Way  to  God,  and  shows 
that  it  leads  through  the  civic  and  cathartic  virtues  up 


MUSLIM   EDUCATION  147 

to  the  theoretic,  by  which  death,  resurrection,  and  eternal 
reward  or  punishment  are  contemplated. — No.  43  (3)  ex- 
hibits the  Faith  and  Teachings  of  the  "  Brothers  of  Sin- 
cerity." This  faith  includes  a  belief  in  individual  im- 
mortality.— No.  44  (4)  describes  the  Life  of  the  Brothers, 
which,  if  somewhat  monastic,  was  full  of  sweet  reason 
and  love.* — No.  45  (5)  seeks  to  show  the  Philosophic 
Content  of  Islam,  and  to  explain  the  meaning  of  Inspira- 
tion and  Obsession. — No.  46  (6)  discusses  the  Nature  of 
the  Revealed  Law,  the  Conditions  of  Prophecy,  the  Qual- 
ifications of  Prophets,  and  the  Teachings  of  the  Servants 
of  God.  Its  purpose  is  to  show  how  the  sacred  writings 
have  to  be  interpreted  in  order  to  be  brought  into  har- 
mony with  philosophy.  Here  allegory  plays  a  large  part. 
— No.  47  (7)  treats  of  the  Call  to  God,  to  Sincerity  and 
Love,  and  shows  that  the  Kingdom  of  truth  and  good- 
ness must  begin  with  a  small  knot  of  men  who  write  and 
agree  to  lead  a  certain  life,  and  propagate  a  certain  doc- 

*  They  had  formed  themselves  into  groups  or  lodges,  for  the  pursuit  of 
study,  and  a  common  life  of  purity,  simplicity,  and  helpfulness.  Their 
social  bond  was  friendship  or  love,  and  the  guide  of  their  life  science, 
which  they  welcomed  in  all  its  forms.  They  professed  to  draw  their 
knowledge  from  four  kinds  of  books,  (1)  Books  on  the  Matter  and 
Form  of  Knowledge  (Aristotle's  Logic,  etc.);  (2)  Books  of  Revelation 
(Torah,  Gospel,  Psalms,  Qoran,  etc.)  ;  (3)  Books  on  Physics  and  Human 
Productions  ;  (4)  Books  on  Mystic  Philosophy  (Neo-Platpnic  chiefly). 
They  recognized  four  grades  of  spiritual  attainment,  and  divided  them- 
selves into  four  classes  corresponding  to  these :  (1)  The  Technics,  whose 
virtues  were  purity  of  soul-substance,  quick  comprehension  and  rapid 
presentation,  and  whose  course  extended  from  their  fifteenth  to  their 
thirtieth  year;  (2)  the  Directors,  whose  virtues  were  directive  power, 
generosity,  gentleness,  sympathy  and  compassion,  and  whose  course 
extended  from  thirty  to  forty ;  (3)  the  Kings  or  Rulers,  whose  virtue 
was  power  to  command  and  forbid,  to  overcome  and  determine,  with  a 
view  to  suppressing,  with  gentleness,  insubordination,  and  whose  course 
extended  from  forty  to  fifty;  (4)  the  Angels,  whose  virtue  was  divine 
insight  or  inspiration,  by  which  they  rose  to  a  vision  of  the  Eternal,  and 
of  the  future  life,  and  the  way  thither,  who  had  complete  authority  over 
the  Brothers,  whose  course  lasted  till  their  death,  when  they  ascended  to 
God  as  ministering  angels.  Cf.  last  lines  of  Golden  Words. 


148  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

trine. — No.  48  (8)  treats  of  the  Actions  of  Spiritual  Be- 
ings, and  shows  that  there  exist  incorporeal,  active  es- 
sences in  the  world. — No.  49  (9)  deals  with  the  different 
Forms  of  Government,  the  Grades  of  Eulers,  and  the 
Character  of  the  Euled.  God  is  the  supreme  ruler,  and 
the  best  earthly  ruler  is  he  that  stands  nearest  to  Him. — 
No.  50  (10)  treats  of  the  Universe  as  an  Ordered  Hie- 
rarchy of  Beings,  proceeding  from  God,  and  returning  to 
God.*— No.  51  (11)  treats  of  Witchcraft,  Philtres,  Evil 
Eye,  Omens,  Amulets,  Talismans,  Genii,  Satans,  Angels, 
and  their  relations  and  acts. 

Such  is  the  Encyclopaedia,  or  educational  curriculum 
of  the  "  Brothers  of  Sincerity."!  It  must,  as  a  whole,  be 
abandoned,  as  incompatible  with  demonstrated  truth; 
much  of  it  must  be  rejected,  as  pure  superstition.  Yet  it 
claims  our  interest  for  several  reasons:  (1)  It  sums  up  the 
best  thought  of  a  long,  momentous  period  in  the  history 
of  culture,  a  period  in  which  man  "  rose  from  nature  to 
spirit,"  and,  indeed,  is  the  very  form  of  that  process. 
(2)  It  has  its  roots  in  all  the  past  of  humanity,  and  its 
branches  in  all  its  future:  it  is  the  complete  scheme  of 
medieval  science.  (3)  It  is  all-comprehensive,  including 
nature  and  spirit,  and  showing  that  the  former  has  its 
origin  in  the  latter.  (4)  It  does  its  best  to  harmonize 
reason  with  revelation.  J  (5)  It  shows  man  his  place  in 
the  universe,  his  origin,  his  destiny,  and,  therefore,  his 
duty.  (6)  It  thus  furnishes  a  complete  education,  en- 

*SeeQoran,  XXL,  104 

t  It  presupposed  primary  instruction  in  reading,  writing,  grammar, 
versification,  and  arithmetic. 

J  It  shows  the  dangers  with  which  such  attempts  are  necessarily  beset 
because  they  assume  a  dualism  that  does  not  exist.  A  superrationai 
revelation  made  to  reason  is  a  contradiction  in  terms. 


MUSLIM   EDUCATION  149 

abling  its  recipient  to  lead  a  rational,  aimful,  and,  there- 
fore, free  life. 

The  system,  including,  as  it  does  (1)  Propaedeutics,  (2) 
Physics,  (3)  Metaphysics,  (4)  Theology,  is  complete  in 
every  part.  Though,  like  all  systems  prior  to  the  rise 
of  experimental  science,  it  assumes  all  the  knowable  to 
be  known,  and  so  presents  itself  as  final,  an  absolute 
norm  for  life  and  thought,  it  has  many  merits.  On  the 
intellectual  side,  it  taught  men  to  look  upon  themselves 
as  having  their  origin  and  end  in  the  one  supreme  prin- 
ciple of  the  universe,  and  as  being  essential  parts  of  the 
sum  of  existence.  On  the  emotional  side,  it  made  them 
feel  that  the  entire  universe  was  only  their  larger  self, 
and  that,  since  the  same  soul  pulsated  in  all  things,  in 
wronging  others,  they  were  wronging  themselves.  Thus, 
universal  love  and  tenderness  became  the  dominant  prin- 
ciples of  their  lives.  On  the  volitional  side,  it  made 
them  seek  to  elevate  the  living  world  nearer  and  nearer 
to  God,  and  to  instruct,  purify,  and  discipline  the  souls  of 
their  fellows.* 

We  may  well  ask  why  a  system,  with  such  merits,  did 
not  succeed.  The  answer  is  that  it  was  many  generations 
ahead  of  its  time:  the  world  was  not  ready  for  such  a 
gospel.  To  live  by  insight  and  reason  implies  a  degree 
of  culture  rare  at  any  time,  and  certainly  not  common  in 
Iraq  in  the  year  1000.  Among  the  men  who  flattered 
themselves  that  they  could  so  live  was  a  contemporary 
of  the  "  Brothers/'  Ibn  Sina,  one  of  the  greatest  of  all 
thinkers;  and  his  life  offered  an  example  that  did  not 
invite  imitation.  His  outspoken  rationalism  roused  the 

*  Like  all  pantheistic  systems,  it  tended  to  produce  quietism  and  a 
dreamy,  unvolitional  existence. 


150  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

fanaticism  of  the  Arabs,  and  found  expression  in  the 
writings  of  the  sceptical  mystic,*  Al  Ghazzali  (1059- 
1111),  whose  name  closes  the  list  of  pastern  Muslim 
thinkers.  After  him,  a  harsh,  rigid  orthodoxy,  set  off 
against  a  gross,  material,  disingenuous  mysticism,  hoth 
equally  hostile  to  education,  triumphed,  as  it  still  tri- 
umphs,! in  the  East.  In  the  course  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury all  that  remained  of  Arabic  philosophic  writings 
found  its  way  thence  to  Spain,  giving  rise  to  a  philosophic 
movement  of  much  promise,  that  lasted  for  a  century. 
Among  these  writings  was  the  Encyclopaedia  of  the 
"Brothers  of  Sincerity,"  introduced  about  1020-1030. 
Here  it  influenced,  not  only  the  Arab  thinkers  of  the 
West,  but  also,  and  in  a  higher  degree,  the  Jewish,  and, 
ultimately,  the  Christian  thinkers.  The  famous  work  of 
Ibn  Tufail  (died  1185),  Hayy  ibn  Yokdhan,  still  a  favor- 
ite among  the  Quakers,  borrows  much  from  it,  and  so  does 
the  great  work  of  the  Jew  Ibn  Gabirol  (Avicebron), 
Meqor  Hayyim,  which  largely  influenced  the  Christian 
Schoolmen.  %  We  shall  meet  this  influence  further  on 

*  Al  Ghazzali  and  his  mysticism  were  both  of  Persian,  or,  in  the  last 
resort,  Syrian  origin. 

t  See  Gobineau,  Les  Religions  et  Philosophies  dans  VAsie  Centrale. 
Cap.  V. 

J  See  Joel,  Etwas  iiber  den  JSinfluss  der  judischen  Philosophic  aufdie 
christliche  Scholastik,  in  Beitrage  zur  Oeschichte  der  Philosophie,  VoL  I. 


DIVISION  II. 

MEDIEVAL  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I. 

PEEIOD  OF   CHAELES  THE  GREAT 

The  end  of  the  ancient  world  was  also  the  starting-point  of  medi- 
aeval history.  The  former  closed  its  career  with  the  transcendental 
doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith ;  the  latter  began  its  course  with 
these.  These  doctrines  were  the  spring  of  mediaeval  culture.  The 
whole  content  of  human  existence  was  subordinated  to  aims  lying 
beyond  the  present  world.  .  .  .  The  upbuilding  of  the  Chris- 
tian theocratic  state,  with  which  the  epoch  of  the  ancient  peoples 
had  closed,  became  the  problem  of  the  mediaeval  world. — VAN 
EICKEN,  Mittelalt.  Weltansch.,  p.  151. 

The  conceptions  of  the  Divine  and  the  Good,  drawn  from  sensible 
nature,  were  already  the  first  steps  to  a  breach  with  nature.  The 
principle  of  the  natural  would  have  led  the  Germanic  myth,  as  it 
had  once  done  the  Greek,  beyond  itself.  The  life  of  nature  was 
already  poetized  into  a  tragedy,  and  the  change  in  things  traced  back 
to  moral  guilt.  Clearly,  the  continuation  of  the  myth  would  have 
resulted  among  the  Germans,  also,  in  a  principal  denial  of  nature. 
But  this  evolution  was  interrupted  by  the  introduction  of  Christian- 
ity. The  thought  of  an  opposition  between  nature  and  spirit  re- 
mained undeveloped  in  the  depths  of  the  myth. — Ibid.,  p.  160. 

Christianity  is  asceticism  and  theocracy. — HARNACK,  Dogmen- 
gescli.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  298. 

Law  is  mighty,  mightier  is  need. — GOETHE,  Faust%  Pt.  II. 
151 


152  THE   HISTORY    OF   EDUCATION 

When  education  revived  in  Europe,  after  the  darkness 
of  the  eighth  century,  it  was  no  longer  among  the  Latin 
peoples,  but  among  their  conquerors,,  the  Germans. 
With  these  an  altogether  new  phase  of  education  begins. 
If,  thus  far,  education  had  aimed  at  subordinating  the 
individual  to  the  social  whole,  or  its  ruler,  its  task  now 
is  to  free  the  individual,  to  give  him  validity  in  the  face 
of  all  institutions.  Of  this  task  it  only  slowly  became 
conscious;  indeed,  it  is  not  completely  conscious  of 
it  now. 

When  the  Germanic  tribes  overcame  and  broke  down 
the  civic  empire  of  Rome,  they  themselves  were  over- 
come by  the  Semitized,  supernatural  empire  which  had 
long  been  undermining  and  replacing  it,  that  is,  by  Chris- 
tianity, which  had  fallen  heir  to  its  imperial  and  legal 
forms.*  And,  indeed,  they  could  hardly  have  desired 
anything  better.  The  passionate,  untamable  individual- 
ity of  the  Germans,  which  even  the  necessity  of  com- 
bination, and  subordination  to  chiefs,  in  their  long  strug- 
gle with  the  Romans  had  but  slightly  modified,  could 
have  found  no  better  corrective  than  the  awesome  super- 
naturalism  of  Roman  Christianity.  This  appealed,  in  a 
powerful  way,  to  their  profoundly  superstitious  natures, 
and,  though  it  never  succeeded  in  cpmpletely  conquer- 
ing their  individualism  and  imparting  that  political 
consistency  which  is  essential  to  the  founding  of  a  great 
empire,  it  enabled  them  to  play  an  important  part  in 
the  world.  The  history  of  the  Middle  Age,  and,  to  a 
large  extent,  even  that  of  modern  times,  is  the  record 
of  a  struggle  between  Roman  coercive  organization  and 
German  individualism,  and  the  end  is  not  yet.  But, 

*  See  Von  Eicken,  Mittelalterliche  Weltanschauung,  pp.  159  seq. 


PERIOD   OF   CHAKLES   THE   GREAT  153 

with  all  her  Eoman  tendency  to  coercion,  the  Church, 
almost  in  spite  of  herself,  contributed  powerfully  to 
the  development  of  the  higher,  rational  individualism, 
by  dividing  men's  allegiance.  In  the  ancient  world,  the 
individual  belonged,  soul  and  body,  to  the  State;  in  the 
mediaeval  world,  he  belonged,  with  his  body  to  the  State,* 
with  his  soul  to  the  Church,  and  it  was  through  the  lat- 
ter that  he  finally  conquered  for  himself  a  sphere  inde- 
pendent of  the  former.  The  most  unworldly  element 
in  Christianity,  viz.,  Mysticism,  was  the  great  breeder 
of  individual  freedom,  f 

The  revival  of  study  in  medieval  Europe  was  due  to 
the  influence  of  Irish  or  Scottish^  monks.  Ireland  was 
Christianized  by  the  British  St.  Patrick,  about  A.D.  432, 
and  a  century  later  became  the  seat  of  stern  piety  and 
learning.  The  old  Gra3co-Roman  curriculum  of  studies 
seems  to  have  continued  there.  Thus,  when  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Romans  from  Britain  left  that  country, 
with  its  churches  and  schools,  to  the  mercy  of  the  Picts 
and  confusion,  learning  flourished  in  a  land  where  the 
Roman  eagles  never  flew.  Hence,  under  the  influence 
of  the  Irish  St.  Columba  (Colum,  Colme),  and  his  great 
monastery  in  lona  (Colme-Kill),  it  spread  among  the 
Picts,  and  had  made  considerable  progress  by  the  year 
600,  when  Roman  Christianity  began  to  spread  among 
the  Anglo-Saxons.  Though  there  were  considerable 
differences  between  Irish  and  Roman  Christianity,  and 

*  See  the  closing  sections  of  Dante's  De  Monarchia,  and  cf .  Villari, 
Saggi  di  Storia  di  Critica  c  di  Politico,,  pp.  37-93. 

\  See  Preger,  Die  deutsche  Mystik,  passim,  and  Tocco,  VSresia  nel 
Medio  Evo,  pp.  261-559  (Book  II). 

\  Till  about  the  tenth  century  Scotia  means  Ireland,  and  Scot  means 
Irish.  In  the  ninth  century,  however,  John  the  Scot  found  it  necessary 
to  add  Eriugena  to  his  name. 


154  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

the  Iro-Pictish  church  was  independent  of  Home,  there 
was  no  hostility  between  the  two.  The  learned  Irish 
monks,  who  carried  their  discipline  and 'their  learning 
all  over  Europe,  even  to  Iceland,  before  its  discovery  by 
the  Norsemen  in  864,*  were  willing  to  impart  these  to 
their  catholic  brethren.  Thus,  by  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century,  cloister  schools  had  begun  to  rise  in 
the  north  of  England — at  Yarrow,  Wearmouth,  York, 
etc.  At  the  same  time,  the  Greek,  Theodore  of  Tarsus, 
first  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  laboring  to  give 
learning  a  seat  in  the  south.  In  a  very  little  time  Anglo- 
Saxon  missionaries  and  teachers  were  following  in  the 
wake  of  their  Irish  brethren,  and  helping  to  revive  edu- 
cation on  the  continent.  They  seem  to  have  devoted 
special  attention  to  the  Franks,  who  had  become  catho- 
lics under  Chlodowech,  in  496,  and  who  were  now  rising 
in  political  importance  in  consequence,  f  Among  these 
pioneers  were  Egbert,  Wilfrid,  and  Willebrod  (died 
739).  More  famous  than  these  was  Wynfrith,  who 
assumed  the  Latinized  name  Bonifatius,  and  whom 
Pope  Gregory  II  appointed  as  papal  vicar  in  southern 
Germany.  Under  this  man|  and  his  Anglo-Saxon  com- 

*  See  the  Islendinga-b6k,  near  the  beginning. 

t  The  conversion  of  Chlodowech  and  his  Pranks  to  Catholicism  was  a 
great  turning-point  in  history.  The  Christianity  of  the  Germanic  tribes 
had  for  the  most  part  been  Arianism,  while  that  of  the  Romanized 
populations,  among  whom  they  settled  as  conquerors,  was  Catholicism. 
This  naturally  produced  antagonism  between  the  two  nationalities,  and 
greatly  weakened  the  Germans.  To  put  an  end  to  this,  Chlodowech,  by 
a  wonderful  stroke  of  policy,  became  a  Catholic,  and  at  once  had  all  the 
influence  of  the  Catholic  bishops  and  church  on  his  side.  His  Franks 
were  widely  welcomed,  as  deliverers  from  heresy,  and  his  dominions 
rapidly  extended.  See  Von  Eicken,  Mittela.lt,  Weltanschauung,  pp.  169- 
212. — It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  oldest  known  specimen  of  any  Ger- 
manic tongue  is  the  Gospels  of  Ulfilas.  Arian  Bishop  of  the  Moeso- 
Goths,  on  the  lower  Danube,  about  A.  n.  360. 

\  He  was  finally  driven  from  his  position  by  the  civil  power,  and 
died  a  martyr's  death  among  the  Friesians  in  755. 


PERIOD  OP  CHARLES  THE  GREAT  165 

patriots,  male  and  female,  the  organization  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  Roman  church  were  introduced  every- 
where in  the  Frankish  dominions,  which  now  occupied 
nearly  all  that  had  been  covered  hy  the  Roman  empire, 
except  what  was  occupied  by  Islam  and  Constantinople. 
This  was  done,  at  first,  without  the  co-operation  of  the 
civil  power;  but  this  also  was  soon  obtained,  and  a 
close  bond  established  between  the  civil  and  ecclesias- 
tical authorities,  a  bond  which  in  the  sequel  had  much 
significance.  When,  in  747,  Pippin  became  master  of 
the  whole  Frankish  domain,  which  had  been  broken 
up  into  separate  kingdoms  since  the  death  of  Chlodo- 
wech,  he  did  his  best  to  further  catholic  belief  and  dis- 
cipline among  his  people,  and  to  strengthen  the  bond 
between  his  power  and  the  Roman  See  by  an  exchange 
of  benefits. 

This  was  the  condition  of  things  when  Charles,  sur- 
named  the  Great,  became  sole  ruler  of  the  Frankish 
dominions  (771  A.D.).  He  was  truly  a  great  man,  in  that 
he  clearly  saw  the  needs  of  his  time  and  strove  to  meet 
them.  These  needs  were,  above  all,  unity  of  sentiment 
among  the  various  subject  peoples,  and  education.  Fully 
recognizing  that  the  civil  power  was  unequal  to  this 
great  task,  and  seeing  no  help  anywhere  save  in  the 
Church,  he  did  his  best  to  work  through  it,  meaning 
to  keep  it  under  his  control.  His  efforts  were  so  suc- 
cessful that  on  Christmas  day,  A.D.  800,  he  was  crowned 
Roman  Emperor  by  the  Pope,  in  St.  Peter's,  and  the 
chief  seat  of  civil  authority  in  the  Western  World  trans- 
ferred from  the  GraBCo-Latin  to  the  Germanic  peoples, 
an  event  of  infinite  significance.  At  the  same  time,  the 
Frankish  church  came  to  stand  for  Western  Christianity, 


156  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

effecting  changes  even  in  the  creed.    In  fact,  Charles 
was  complete  master,  in  both  State  and  Church.* 

Long  before  his  coronation,  Charles  had  taken  meas- 
ures to  promote  education  among  his  subjects  by  draw- 
ing to  his  court  learned  men  from  different  countries. 
Most  prominent  among  these  was  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Alcuin,f  who  went  from  the  school  of  York  to  Aachen, 
in  782,  to  become  head  of  the  "  Palace  School."  As 
such,  he  is  usually  regarded  as  the  father  of  mediaeval 
education.  This,^^  we  shall  see,  is  not  quite  correct; 
for  that  education  had  more  than  one  father.  Besides, 
the  movement  initiated  by  Charles  belonged,  in  char- 
acter, rather  to  the  ancient  than  to  the  mediaeval  world, 
whose  distinguishing  Mysticism  had  not  yet  come  into 
prominence.  Alcuin's  aim  was  to  restore  the  education 
of  the  days  of  St.  Augustine,  including  even  its  pagan 
elements.  Although  he  probably  knew  nothing  of 
Martianus  Capella,  he  championed  the  "  Seven  Liberal 
Arts,"  and  deprecated  every  departure  from  them.  He 
was,  indeed,  in  all  ways,  authority-bound  and  conserva- 
tive, manifesting  no  originality  anywhere;  as  was  well, 
considering  the  conditions  under  which  he  worked. 
Deeply  influenced  by  St.  Augustine,  he  aimed,  in  all 
that  he  did,  to  prepare  men  for  the  life  to  come.  He 
deprecated  all  frivolity,  and  even  play,  in  his  pupils.  Of 
science  he  had  not  an  inkling:  his  definitions  are  often 
childish  and  worse.  His  style  is  florid,  unnatural,  and 
allegorical,  sometimes  a  mere  cento  of  scripture-pas- 
sages, shamelessly  wrested  from  their  natural  meaning. 

*See  Harnack,  Dogmengesch.,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  244-274. 

t  Alcuin,  born  near  York  about  735  ;  entered  the  cathedral  Bchool  as  a 
mere  child ;  became  its  master  in  the  prime  of  life,  and  conducted  it 
with  much  success;  was  transferred  to  Aachen  in  782;  became  Bishop 
of  Tours,  796;  died  there,  804.  See  West's  Alcuin  and  the  Rise  of 
the.  Christian  Schools. 


PERIOD   OF   CHARLES   THE  GREAT  157 

And  yet  Alcuin  was  a  great  and  valuable  man  in  his 
day.  Under  his  influence,  and  that  of  Charles,  educa- 
tion took  a  fresh  start  in  the  "West.  It  consisted  of 
three  grades — (1)  primary  education  given  by  the  parish 
priests;  (2)  secondary  education,  imparted  in  connec- 
tion with  the  cathedrals  and  in  the  monasteries;  and  (3) 
higher  education,  confined  to  the  Palace  School,  the 
parent,  in  some  sense,  of  the  later  universities.  In  all, 
the  standard  of  instruction,  from  our  point  of  view, 
was  incredibly  low;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  more 
could  have  been  accomplished  in  those  days.  One  great 
drawback  was  the  scarcity  of  books,  and  even  of  ma- 
terial on  which  to  write;  another  was  the  repressive 
influence  of  the  Koman  church,  which  was  more  and 
more  aiming  at  universal  sway,  and,  therefore,  naturally 
averse  to  anything  that  might  cause  dissension.* 

Nearly  all  the  prominent  teachers  of  the  next  genera- 
tion were  pupils  or  friends  of  Alcuin.  Most  famous 
among  these  was  Hraban  Maur,f  the  "  first  instructor 
of  Germany,"  and  a  much  greater  man  than  his  master. 
He  composed  several  works  on  education — On  the  In- 
struction of  the  Clergy;  On  Reckoning;  An  Excerpt  on 
the  Grammatical  Art  of  Priscian;  On  the  Universe. 
The  first  of  these  treats  of  the  various  branches  of  study, 
the  Seven  Liberal  Arts,  etc.,  and  shows  a  just  apprecia- 
tion of  the  value  of  pagan  learning.  The  last  is  a  kind 
of  universal  encyclopedia,  somewhat  on  the  plan  of 

*  In  West's  Alcuin  is  a  list  of  Alcuin's  educational  and  other  works, 
pp.  183-191  ;  and  also  a  list  of  the  principal  works  to  which  he  had 
access,  pp.  34  seq. 

t  Born  at  Mainz,  776 ;  sent  early  to  the  abbey  of  Fulda,  founded  in 
744  by  Bonifatius;  went  with  others  to  Tours  in  802  to  study  under 
Alcuin ;  returned  in  803  to  Fulda,  and  taught  with  great  success  till 
822,  when  he  became  abbot ;  retired  into  privacy,  842 ;  made  archbishop 
of  Mainz,  847 ;  died  near  Mainz,  856. 


158  THE  HISTORY  OP  EDUCATION 

Isidore's  Etymologies,  and  treats  of  everything,  from 
creation  to  cooking.  The  path  pursued  by  Hraban 
might  have  led  to  a  revival  of  ancient  learning  in  the 
ninth  century,  had  not  unforeseen  influences  come  into 
play.  As  it  was,  the  work  done  by  Alcuin,  Hraban, 
and  their  many  followers  was  not  done  in  vain.  In  the 
troublous  century  that  followed  the  death  of  Charles 
the  Great,  when  his  empire  was  divided  and  disordered, 
though  education  suffered,  it  never  died  out,  but  lived 
on  in  the  hands  of  such  men  as  Servatus  Lupus  (805- 
862),  Haymo  (died  853),  Walafried  Strabo  (807-  ?  ), 
Luitpert  (died  853),  Paschasius  Eatpert  (died  865), 
Werembert  (died  884),  Eric  of  Auxerre  (834-881?), 
Hucbald  (died  circ.  930),  and  Odo  of  Cluny  (880-942), 
till  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century,  when  a  new  spirit 
took  possession  of  Western  Europe. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SCHOLASTICISM    AND    MYSTICISM 

The  mystical  teaching  of  the  Middle  Age  has  its  origin  chiefly  in 
the  writings  falsely  attributed  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  writings 
which  probably  belong  to  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  The 
speculation  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  is  an  attempt  to  regard 
Christianity  from  the  point  of  view  of  Neo-Platonism,  and  with  the 
help  of  this  to  show  it  to  be  thft.true  philosophy. — PREGER,  Deut- 
sche Mystik,  Vol.  I.,  p.  148. 

A  mystic  who  is  not  a  Catholic  is  a  dilettante. — HARNACK,  Dog- 
mcngesch.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  377. 

Mysticism  is  Catholic  piety  in  general,  in  so  far  as  this  is  not 
mere  obedience  to  the  Church,  that  is,  fides  implicita. — Ibid.  p. 
375. 

If  any  one  shall  say  that  the  married  state  is  to  be  preferred  to 
the  state  of  virginity  or  celibacy,  and  that  it  is  not  better  and  more 
blessed  to  remain  in  virginity  or  celibacy  than  to  be  joined  in 
matrimony,  let  him  be  accursed  (anathema).  Canon  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent. — DBNZINGER,  Enchiridion,  §  856. 

The  epoch  of  Charles  the  Great  is  a  sort  of  passage- 
way, connecting  the  ancient  with  the  mediaeval  world. 
It  is  half-worldly  and  pagan,  while  medievalism  is  un- 
worldly and  Christian.  The  belief,  widely  current  in 
the  tenth  century,  that  the  world  was  coming  to  an  end, 
was  not  altogether  mistaken,  though  its  form  was.  At 
that  time,  an  old  world  passed  away,  and  a  new  one  was 

159 


160  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

born,  with  new  ideals  and  a  new  practice,  deeply  affect- 
ing education. 

The  influences  which  brought  about  this  .change  were, 
mainly,  three — (1)  the  confusion  and  distress  due  to  the 
dismemberment  of  Charles'  empire,  and  the  inroads  of 
the  fierce  Norsemen,  (2)  the  introduction  of  Oriental 
Mysticism,  (3)  the  rise  and  spread  of  Islam.  All  these 
tended  to  make  the  Church  and  her  supernatural,  super- 
mundane ideals  the  centre  of  life,  and  to  withdraw  men 
from  the  ways  of  the  world.  And  this  is  medievalism. 
Of  the  first  of  these  influences  and  its  disorganizing 
effects  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  speak.  They  made  life 
so  unsafe  and  burdensome  as  to  drive  large  numbers  of 
men  and  women  into  the  cloister,  to  occupy  themselves 
with  the  world  to  come.  The  second  influence,  Oriental 
Mysticism,  which  gave  content  to  that  world,  and  pointed 
the  way  thither,  came  from  the  schools  of  Ireland,  which 
had  remained  outside  the  Catholic  church,  and  clung 
to  Greek  learning.  About  the  middle  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, John  Scot  Eriugena,*  the  most  profound  thinker 
of  those  ages,  gave  to  the  world  a  Latin  translation  of 
the  mystic  works  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius,  with  an  ex- 
tensive commentary,  drawing  on  the  writings  of  Maxi- 
mus  Confessor  and  other  Greeks.  These  works,  though  at 
first  regarded  with  suspicion  by  the  Church,  were  so 
much  in  accord  with  the  tendencies  of  the  time  that  they 
soon  found  the  widest  acceptance,  and  furnished  the 
foundation  for  that  monkish,  mystic,  world-fleeing  view 
of  life  which  distinguished  the  Middle  Age.  The  third 
influence,  Islam,  which,  claiming,  to  be  the  latest  and 

*  This  is  the  correct  form  of  this  word.  John  was  born  about  A.D. 
810,  educated  in  Ireland,  placed  by  Charles  the  Bald  at  the  head  of  the 
Palace  School,  died  in  France  about  877.  His  great  original  work  was  De 
Divitione  Nature,  whose  importance  long  remained  unrecognized. 


SCHOLASTICISM  AND  MYSTICISM  161 

highest  divine  revelation,  had  come  into  conflict  with 
Latin  Christianity  early  in  the  eighth  century,  had  the 
effect  of  waking  Christendom  from  its  supernatural  slum- 
bers, and  compelling  it  to  state  its  position  definitely, 
as  opposed  to  the  new  faith.*  Whereas  the  thinkers  of 
the  patristic  period  had  spent  their  efforts  in  defining 
particular  dogmas,  rarely,  except  in  the  cases  of  Origen 
and  Augustine,  attempting  to  present  a  systematic  body 
of  doctrine,  thinkers  were  now  called  upon  to  define 
clearly  all  the  Christianity  meant,  in  order  to  create  a 
unitary  consciousness,  clearly  aware  of  the  distinction 
between  itself  and  that  of  Islam.  It  was  this  call  that 
gave  rise  to  Scholasticism,  which,  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury came  to  reduce  to  rational  form  the  prevailing  Mys- 
ticism, to  draw  out  static  contemplation  into  dynamic 
reasoning.! 

While  Mysticism,  as  mere  contemplation,  was  draw- 
ing men  away  from  the  life  of  the  world,  education, 
naturally  enough,  languished.  The  old  Grasco-Koman 
learning,  which  had  been  partially  revived  in  the  time 
of  Charles  the  Great  and  the  century  that  followed, 
gradually  disappeared  again,  giving  place  to  a  cloistral 
discipline,  whose  aim  was  to  withdraw  men's  thoughts 
from  civic  life,  and  from  nature  with  its  manifold  phe- 
nomena, and  to  fix  them  upon  the  supernatural  and  the 

*  Muhammad  had  placed  his  creed  in  direct  opposition  to  that  of  Chris- 
tianity, by  pointedly  denying,  in  one  brief  surah  (cxii)  of  the  Qoran, 
the  two  fundamental  dogmas  of  the  latter,  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarna- 
tion :  "  Say,  He  is  One  God,  God  Eternal.  He  begets  not,  nor  is  begot- 
ten, and  there  is  no  one  equal  to  him." 

t  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  oppose  Scholasticism  to  Mysticism.  The 
former  is  merely  the  explication  of  what  is  implicit  in  the  latter. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  the  prince  of  scholastics,  is  quite  as  much  of  a  Mystic 
as  Bernard,  the  Prince  of  Mystics.  See  Harnack,  Dogmengesch. ,  VoL 
III.,  pp.  314  seq. 

11 


162  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

changeless  One  of  Neo-Platonic  speculation.  What  were 
grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  and  the  rest,  to  men  who  were 
straining  every  faculty  in  order  to  attain  'the  vision  of 
God?  They  could,  at  best,  be  but  hindrances,  and  so, 
indeed,  they  were  regarded.  From  about  the  middle  of 
the  tenth  century  to  the  end  of  the  eleventh,  when  Mys- 
ticism, as  yet  hardly  touched  by  reflection,  was  celebrat- 
ing its  chief  triumphs,  civic  life,  and  with  it,  education, 
always  connected  with  that  life,  sank  to  a  very  low  ebb,* 
Education  did  not,  indeed,  altogether  die  out;  but  it 
hardly  went  beyond  teaching  novices  to  read  the  church- 
service  and  the  favorite  books  of  edification,  f  About 
the  year  1100,  a  change,  due  to  two  causes,  becomes 
visible.  The  attacks  of  the  Norsemen  had  ceased,  and 
Europe  was  once  more  settling  down  to  a  tolerable  civic 
life.  At  the  same  time,  the  growing  power  and  culture 
of  Islam,  which,  as  early  as  732,  had  reached  Tours  and 
Poictiers  and,  later  on,  had  taxed  the  energies  of  Charles 

*  The  Mystic  movement  had  its  chief  centre  in  the  Burgnndian  abbey 
of  Clngny,  which  furnished  the  Church  with  many  of  its  most  ardent 
champions,  including  Gregory  VII. ,  the  most  papal  of  all  the  popes.  See 
Mullet,  Kirchengesch. ,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  384  seq. 

t  The  condition  of  education  about  the  year  1000  comes  out  with  much 
clearness  in  the  life  of  the  Auvergnat  monk,  Gerbert,  who  died  as  Pope 
Sylvester  II.,  in  1003.  This  indefatigable  student  and  reformer  was 
born  in  Auvergne  about  950,  entered  the  abbey  of  Aurillac  as  a  child, 
studied  at  the  abbey  of  Vich,  in  Spain,  967-970,  met  Pope  John  XIII. 
and  the  Emperor  Otto  L  in  Italy  in  971  (?) ;  studied  philosophy  at  Reims 
in  972 ;  became  abbot  of  Bobbio  in  983 ;  returned  to  Reims,  984 ;  helped 
to  elect  Hugh  Capet  King  of  France,  987 ;  bishop  of  Reims,  991 ;  retired 
to  Italy,  996 ;  bishop  of  Ravenna,  998 ;  pope  999-1003.  In  the  last 
capacity  he  endeavored,  in  concert  with  Otto  III.,  to  revive  the  Roman 
Empire,  a  fact  which  shows  that  he  had  not  succumbed  to  the  mystical 
tendency.  His  efforts  to  obtain  books,  and  his  wanderings  in  search  of 
the  elements  of  learning,  show  how  low  learning  had  fallen  in  his  time. 
His  acquisitions,  which  were  modest  enough,  were  yet  so  unusual  for  his 
time  that  he  earned  himself  the  reputation  of  being  a  wizard,  and  went 
down  to  posterity  as  such.  See  Picavet,  Gerbert,  un  Pape  Philosophe, 
cTapres  VHistoire  et  d'apres  la  L^gende  (Paris  1897).  Along  with  Ger- 
bert should  be  mentioned  Notker  Laheo,  a  monk  of  St.  Gall,  who  died 
in  1022.  For  an  interesting  picture  of  him,  and  of  cloistral  school  life  in 
the  tenth  century,  see  Scheffel's  novel,  Ekkehard. 


SCHOLASTICISM   AND   MYSTICISM  163 

the  Great,  placed  the  Church,  which  now  aspired  to  rule 
the  world  hy  denying  it,  in  an  attitude  of  self-defence, 
demanding  education.  Her  dogmatic  system  had  to  be 
justified,  and  this  could  he  done  only  with  the  arms  of 
reason.  Thus,  about  the  date  named,  the  seeds  sown 
long  before  by  Alcuin  and  Gerbert  began  to  bear  fruit. 
Alongside  such  Platonizing  mystics  as  Anselm  (1033- 
1109)  and  Bernard  (1091-1153),  arose  men  of  Aristo- 
telian tendencies,  e.  g.,  Koscellinus  (1050-1120?)  and 
Abelard  (1079-1142),  who  did  their  best  to  revive  edu- 
cation and  thought.  These  two  men  mark  so  important 
an  epoch  in  education  that  we  must  devote  some  atten- 
tion to  them. 

The  great  question  which  agitated  Christian  Europe, 
about  A.D.  1100,  related  to  the  dogma  of  the  divine 
Trinity,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  Muhammad  had  denied. 
This  involved  the  whole  problem  of  the  nature  of  knowl- 
edge, or,  as  it  was  then  called,  the  problem  of  Universals 
— of  Eealism  and  Nominalism.  It  was  this  that  gave 
rise  to  Scholasticism,  or  mediaeval  science.  The  question 
had  been  stated  long  before  by  Porphyry  in  his  Intro- 
duction (Eio-ayojyT?),  but  set  aside  as  too  difficult  for  dis- 
cussion: "  With  regard  to  genera  and  species,  whether 
they  have  actual  subsistence,  or  consist  merely  in  pure 
thoughts,  and  whether,  if  they  do  subsist,  they  are  cor- 
poreal or  incorporeal;  transcendent,  or  immanent  in,  and 
related  to,  sensible  things,  I  shall  not  endeavor  to  de- 
cide, and  this  for  the  reason  that  the  question  is  an 
extremely  profound  one,  requiring  another  and  deeper 
investigation."  *  What  Porphyry  shrank  from,  was 
forced  upon  the  men  of  the  twelfth  century  by  the  ne- 

*  Isaqoge^  near  begin. ;  cf.  Haure'au,  De  la  Philos.  Scolastique,  VoL 
L,  p.  35;  Ueberweg,  Grundriss  etc.,  Pt.  II,  p.  141  (7th  Edit.). 


164  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

cessities  of  Christian  dogma.  Is  God  a  subsistent  reality, 
or  a  mere  generalization  in  thought  from  the  three  divine 
persons?  The  Platonists  and  Mystics  (Anselm,  Bernard), 
took  one  view,  the  Aristotelians  (Koscellinus,  Abelard), 
the  other.  With  the  question  itself  we  have  no  con- 
cern here,  further  than  to  say  that  it  revived  the  science 
of  dialectic  and,  in  course  of  time,  all  the  sciences  or 
disciplines  of  the  ancient  world,  and  made  education 
necessary. 

Though  Koscellinus  is  justly  regarded  as  the  parent 
of  anti-mystic  Nominalism,  this  revival  is  due  to  his 
pupil,  Abelard,*  more  than  to  any  other  one  person. 
The  romantic  history  of  this  man  and  his  wife,  Heloi'se, 
are  too  well-known  to  require  treatment  here.  Abelard 
was  the  first  modern  man;  Heloise,  the  first  modern 
woman.  With  all  their  faults,  they  were  profoundly 
human.  We  must  not,  however,  conclude  from  this,  as 
is  sometimes  done,  that  he  meant  to  be  unorthodox,  or 
sought  to  rebel  against  the  doctrines  of  the  Church.  Far 
from  it!  He  merely  tried  to  fortify  these  doctrines,  by 
placing  them  upon  a  rational  foundation.  In  so  far,  he 
may,  indeed,  be  called  the  parent  of  modern  rationalism 
and  science.  He  had  great  respect  for  certain  pagan 
thinkers,  especially  for  Plato  and  Aristotle,  of  whose 
works,  however,  he  knew  but  little,  f  He  called  himself 
a  Peripatetic,  and  believing,  like  all  medieval  men,  that 

*  See  Remusat,  Abelard,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1845 ;  Deutsch,  Peter  Abalard, 
ein  kritischer  Theologe  des  zwolften  Jahrhunderts,  Leipzig,  1883 ;  and 
above  all  his  own  Historia  Calamitatum,  forming  the  first  of  the  Letters 
of  Abelard  and  Heloise.  His  works  were  published  by  Cousin :  Petri 
Abfelardi  Opera,  hactenus  seorsim  Edita,  Paris  1849-59  (2  vols.),  and 
Ouvrages  Inedits  d'Abflard,  Paris,  1836. 

t  Of  Plato  he  probably  knew  a  portion  of  the  Timfeus ;  of  Aristotle 
the  Categories,  Interpretation,  Topica,  and  Elenchi  Sophistici — the 
"  Old  Logic  " — with  the  Introduction  of  Porphyry.  His  pupil,  Peter  the 
Lombard,  does  not  once  cite  Aristotle. 


SCHOLASTICISM   AND   MYSTICISM  165 

all  truth  had  already  been  discovered  or  revealed,  and 
only  required  elucidation,  he  made  no  pretence  of  orig- 
inality. But  he  was  a  powerful  and  impressive  eluci- 
dator,  and  this  constitutes  his  merit.  More  than  any 
man  of  his  time,  he  attracted  and  inspired  pupils,  com- 
pelling them  to  think  and  inquire.  He  confined  his 
attention  chiefly  to  Dialectic,  Ethics,  and  Theology,  on 
all  of  which  he  wrote  valuable  treatises,  some  of  which 
brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  Church,  and  espe- 
cially with  the  Mystical  movement,  at  that  time  headed 
by  Bernard,  who  was  his  bitterest  enemy.* 

Abelard  founded  no  school;  but  he  gave  a  mighty 
impulse  to  thought  and  education,  while  several  of  his 
pupils,  Peter  the  Lombard  (1100P-1164),  author  of  the 
famous  Sentences,  so  long  the  chief  theological  text- 
book, Arnold  of  Brescia  (1102P-1155),  John  of  Salisbury 
(1102-1180),  etc.,  did  yeoman's  service  in  the  cause  of 
enlightenment.  He  may  fairly  be  called  the  inventor  of 
the  "  scholastic  method,"!  which  afterwards  became  so 
powerful  a  weapon  in  the  hands  of  Thomas  Aquinas  and' 
others.  But  perhaps  his  chief  merit  lies  in  the  fact  that 
his  influence  largely  contributed  to  the  founding  of  the 
universities,  which  began  some  half  century  after  his 
death.  To  these  we  must  now  turn. 

*  In  his  Dialogue  between  a  Philosopher,  a  Jew  and  a  Christian, 
though  he  gives  the  victory  to  the  last,  he  strives  to  be  fair  to  all  three 
disputants. 

t  See  Picavet,  Abelard  etAlexandre  de  Hales,  Createurs  de  la  Methode 
Scolastique,  in  Etudes  de  Critique  et  d'ffistoire,  Ser.  II.,  Vol.  VII.,  pp. 
209-230.  This  method  consists  in  citing  all  known  authorities  on  both 
sides  of  a  given  question,  then  drawing  an  orthodox  conclusion,  and  then, 
by  a  variety  of  distinctions  and  devices,  showing  how  each  authority 
may  be  reconciled  with  this  conclusion.  It  assumes  that  all  truth  is  to 
be  found  in  authorities,  and  that  these,  when  properly  interpreted,  are  in 
agreement.  It  is,  of  course,  opposed  to  all  free  thought  and  to  all 
original  research ;  but  it  is  a  wonderful  sharpener  of  the  wits,  a  "mental 
gymnastic." 


CHAPTEE  III. 
THE    MEDIEVAL    UNIVERSITIES 

I  have  now,  alas  !  thoroughly,  with  ardent  care,  studied  philos- 
ophy, jurisprudence,  medicine,  and,  the  more's  the  pity,  also  the- 
ology !  And  now  I  stand  here,  poor  fool,  and  am  as  wise  as  I  was 
before. — GOTHE,  Faust,  Scene  L 

The  ancient  world  may  fairly  be  said  to  have  pos- 
sessed universities,  that  is,  institutions  in  which  all  the 
learning  of  the  time  was  imparted.  Such  institutions 
existed  at  Alexandria  (Museum  and  Serapeum),  Athens, 
Constantinople,  and  later  at  Berut,  Bordeaux,  Lyons, 
Edessa,  Nisibis,  etc.  But  the  growth  of  Christian  super- 
naturalism  and  mysticism,  and  the  inroads  of  the  bar- 
barians from  North  and  South  had  mostly  put  an  end 
to  these,  before  A.D.  800.  After  that  date,  the  Eastern 
Muslims  founded  universities  in  Bagdad,  Basra,  Cairo,* 
and  other  places;  but  most  of  these  came  to  an  end  early 
in  the  twelfth  century.  Then  arose  in  Spain,  at  Cor- 
dova, Toledo,  Sevilla,  the  universities  of  the  Western 
Muslims,  which  lasted  for  about  a  century,  being  sup- 
pressed by  orthodox  fanaticism  about  A.D.  1200.  Ibn 
Rushd,  the  last  great  Arab  thinker,  died  in  1198. 

*The  university  of  Cairo  (Al  Azhar)  founded  about  A.D.  900,  still 
exists,  and  is  said  to  have  more  students  than  any  university  in  the 
world.  It  is  a  mere  open  colonnade  attached  to  a  mosque.  Tt  confines  its 
instruction  to  Logic  (Porphyry's  Introduction)  and  Muslim  Theology, 
based  on  the  Qoran  and  commentaries.  There  is  another  Muslim  uni- 
versity at  Fez ;  but  little  is  known  of  it. 

166 


THE  MEDIEVAL   UNIVERSITIES  167 

The  Muslim  universities  may  be  said  to  be  the  parents 
of  the  Christian  universities.  As  we  have  seen,  the  suc- 
cess of  Islam  threatened  Christendom,  not  only  politi- 
cally, but  also  intellectually  and  religiously.  The  brill- 
iant civilizations  of  Iraq  and  Spaing  with  their  schools, 
universities,  art,  trade,  etc.,  contrasted  strongly  with  the 
condition  of  barbarized,  squalid  Europe.  From  the  time 
of  Charlemagne,  the  claims  of  Islam,  and  the  dangers 
arising  from  them  were,  more  or  less,  understood  in 
Christendom.  Christian  scholars  went  to  Muslim  lands 
in  search  of  learning.  The  Crusades  made  the  West 
familiar  with  Muslim  culture.  Early  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, Peter  the  Venerable,  Abbot  of  Clugny,  and  friend 
of  Abelard  in  his  last  days,  caused  the  Qoran  to  be  trans- 
lated into  Latin,  and,  about  the  same  time,  Christian  stu- 
dents were  frequenting  the  Muslim  schools  of  Spain,  and 
translating  Arabic  works  into  the  same.  Famous  among 
these  were  Gerhard  of  Cremona  (1124-1187),  and  Do- 
minicus  Gundissalinus,  archdeacon  of  Segovia  (of  about 
the  same -date),  who  was  assisted  by  the  converted  Jew, 
John  A«ndehut  (Ibn  Dawud).  In  this  way,  soon  after 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  learning  of  the 
Arab  schools  was  known  to  Christian  Europe.  With 
this  learning  went  a  knowledge  of  Muslim  theology, 
which  threatened  to  work  havoc  with  Christian  dogma, 
and  compelled  it  to  defend  itself.  The  brilliant  em- 
peror, Frederick  II.  (1195-12  ? )  surrounded  himself 
with  Muslims,  among  whom  were  the  sons  of  Ibn  Eushd, 
and  was  himself  almost  a  Muslim  in  faith  and  morals, 
nay,  perhaps  altogether  a  free  thinker.* 

*  See  Renan,  AverroSs  et  VAvervoisme  ;  Reutcr,  Gesch.  der  religiosen 
Anfklarung  im  Mittelalter,  Vol.  II.  ;  Steinschneider.  Die  hebraischen 
Uebersetzungen  des  Mitlelalters,  and  Die  arobischen  Uebersetzungen  aus 


168  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

The  Muslim  universities  had  taken  a  broad  sweep,  in- 
cluding in  their  curriculum,  not  only  the  "  liberal  arts," 
but  also  medicine  (physics),  philosophy,1  and  theology. 
When  they  were  closed,  Christian  Europe  not  only  felt 
the  need  of  universities  of  its  own,  but  was  also  able  to 
establish  such.  It  had  not  sat  at  the  feet  of  the  Muslims 
in  vain. 

From  the  days  of  Alcuin  onwards,  a  certain  small 
amount  of  education  had  existed  in  Western  Europe. 
Connected  with  the  larger  churches  were  elementary 
schools  where  reading  was  taught;  and  connected  with 
the  cathedrals  and  monasteries  were  schools  of  a  some- 
what higher  order,  in  which  writing,  vocal  music,  a 
little  arithmetic  (enough  to  calculate  the  date  of  Easter!) 
and  the  elements  of  theology  were  imparted.  Later  on,  in 
the  eleventh  century,  there  arose  in  the  larger  centres — 
Paris,  Cologne,  etc. — institutions  of  a  still  higher  order, 
open  to  all  properly  prepared  students,  without  distinc- 
tion. Here  were  taught  dialectic,  theology,  and  perhaps 
some  other  branches.  About  1100  these  last  received  a 
fresh  impulse,  and  later,  with  the  influx  of  Arab  learn- 
ing (1150-1250),  an  altogether  new  life  and  scope,  which 
turned  them  into  universities.* 

The  name  first  given  to  these  institutions  was  Studium, 
or  Studium  Generate,  the  adjective  implying,  not  that 
they  included  all  branches  of  learning  in  their  curricu- 
lum, but  that,  unlike  other  schools,  they  were  open 
to  the  "  students "  f  of  all  lands.  There  might  be  a 

dem  Oriechischen ;  Jourdain,  Re.cherches  Critiques  sur  VAge  et  F  Origins 
des  Traductions  Latines  d1  Aristote. 

*  See  Denifle,  Die  Universitdten  des  Mittelallers  bis  1400  ;  Compayre, 
Abtlard  and  the  Origin  and  Early  History  of  Universities. 

t  In  Great  Britain,  even  now,  the  verb  study,  and  the  noun  student 
are  confined  to  university-work.  A  school-boy  ia  not  a  student,  nor  does 
he  "  study  his  lessons,"  as  iu  America. 


THE  MEDIAEVAL   UNIVERSITIES  169 

Studium  Generate  for  any  particular  branch,  e.g.,  medi- 
cine. Nevertheless,  the  Studio,  Generalia  did,  in  course 
of  time,  try  to  include  all  knowledge  in  their  cur- 
riculum.* They  were,  moreover,  endowed  with  certain 
privileges,  conferred  by  the  Pope,  the  Emperor,  or  a 
prince.  The  student  who  took  his  degree  at  any  Studium 
Generate  earned  the  right  to  teach  anywhere  (facultas 
ubique  docendi),  without  further  examination.  Private 
institutions,  however  high  their  curriculum,  could  con- 
fer no  such  privilege.  The  term  University  (universitas), 
which  appears  somewhat  later  than  Studium  Generale, 
means  simply  corporation,  and  has  no  special  reference 
to  seats  of  learning.  When  a  Studium  Generale  was 
incorporated,  it  became  a  University,  even  though,  like 
the  law-university  of  Bologna,  it  instructed  but  in  one 
branch.  It  was  a  considerable  time  before  many  uni- 
versities included  all  the  "  faculties." 

The  Arabs  seem  to  have  set  the  example  of  opening 
institutions  of  learning  for  all  the  world.  When  their 
universities  sank,  the  Christian  ones  arose.  Frederic  II. 
was  particularly  active  in  seeking  to  imitate  all  the  in- 
stitutions of  Muslim  civilization.  He  founded  the  Uni- 
versity of  Naples,  and  tried  to  make  all  the  students 
among  his  subjects  attend  it  (1224).  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Oxford,  this  was  the  first  university  that  included' 
all  the  four  faculties — Theology,  Law,  Arts,  (Philos- 
ophy) Medicine.  But  by  far  the  larger  number  of  the 
universities  received  their  charters  from  the  popes,  who 
were,  for  the  most  part,  enlightened  men,  and  patrons 

*  There  is  no  documentary  evidence  for  the  use  of  the  term  Studium 
Generate,  or  the  equivalent  Slndium  Universale,  prior  to  the  third 
quarter  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Both  seem  to  be  translations  of  the 
Arabic  Madrasah,  Kulliyyah,  which  has  the  same  meaning. 


170  THE   HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

of  learning,  rarely  yielding  to  the  allurements  of  Oriental 
mysticism. 

That  Christian  universities  existed  in  fact,  before  they 
received  official  recognition,  is  certain.  That  of  Salerno, 
for  medicine,  dates  back  to  the  ninth  century,  and  the 
same  is  perhaps  true  of  that  of  Oxford,  whose  foundation 
has  often  been  attributed  to  King  Alfred.  For  the  last 
fact  there  is  not  sufficient  documentary  evidence;  yet  it 
is  not  unlikely.  Learning  was  not  uncommon  in  Britain 
in  the  ninth  century,  and  Alfred  was  a  patron  of  it,  hav- 
ing himself  translated  Boetius  and  Orosius.  Certain  it 
is  that  Oxford  had  as  many  students  as  it  has  now,  at 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  when  the  two  universi- 
ties recognized  as  the  oldest,  Paris  and  Bologna,  were 
founded. 

But,  after  all,  there  is  a  very  important  sense  in  which 
these  two  must  be  recognized  as  the  oldest  universities. 
They  are  very  different  from  the  institutions  that  went 
before  them,  and  this  for  four  reasons:  (1)  the  impulse 
given  to  inquiry  and  discussion  by  men  like  Abelard; 
(2)  the  influx  of  Arab  learning  and  thought,  compelling 
the  Church  to  state  and  defend  her  position;  (3)  the 
privileges  granted  to  travelling  students  by  emperors  and 
princes;  (4)  the  incorporation  of  the  teaching  bodies, 
which  gave  them  a  legal  standing.  The  critical  and 
dialectic  method  of  Abelard  and  his  followers  forms  a 
strong  contrast  to  the  dull,  catechetical  method  of  Al- 
cuin  and  the  earlier  teachers.  Compared  with  the  wealth 
of  Arab  learning,  including  Greek  philosophy,  medicine, 
and  mathematics,  the  old  learning  was  but  as  a  drop  in 
the  bucket.  Aristotle  alone,  with  the  commentaries  of 
Averroes  and  others,  was  little  short  of  a  revelation.  He 


THE   MEDIAEVAL   UNIVERSITIES  171 

became  to  the  Christians,  as  he  had  long  been  to  the 
Muslims,  "the  philosopher"  whose  authority  it  was  a 
bold  thing  to  dispute.*  Students,  when  travelling,  or 
when  residing  in  seats  of  learning,  were  under  the  pro- 
tection of  emperors  and  kings,  and  severe  penalties  were 
inflicted  upon  those  who  molested  them.  The  charters 
granted  to  teaching  bodies  insured  them  a  permanent 
existence,  enabling  them  to  outstrip  and  supplant  bodies 
not  so  privileged.  It  was  owing  to  this  that  the  Studio, 
of  Bologna  and  Paris  first  rose  to  the  rank  of  universi- 
ties. The  former  received  its  privileges  from  Frederic 
I.  (Barbarossa)  about  1155;  the  latter,  from  Louis  VII., 
some  years  later.  The  Universitas  originally  consisted 
of  all  the  instructors  in  a  given  Studium.  Later,  it  in- 
cluded the  students  as  well  as  the  teachers.  It  was  only 
after  it  was  constituted  that  the  teachers  began  to  group 
themselves  into  "  faculties,"  each  of  which  managed  its 
own  affairs,  and  of  which  Paris  possessed  four  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  f 

It  is  not  possible  here  to  follow  the  growth  of  the  uni- 
versities after  1200.  Between  that  date  and  1400  their 
number  had  risen  to  nearly  forty,  scattered  over  the  dif- 
ferent countries  of  the  Catholic  world.  Italy  and  France 
had  more  than  all  the  rest  of  Europe  put  together.  Scan-  \ 
dinavia,  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  Scotland  had; 
none;  but  as  the  universities  were  open  to  all  the  world j 
this  did  not  mean  much.  Paris  and  Bologna  long  ref 
tained  their  prestige  and  popularity,  followed  close  by 
Oxford.  The  later  universities  were  modelled  mostly  on 

*  See  Talamo,  L1  Aristotelismo  nella  Storia  delict  Filosofla. 

t  The  philosophic,  or  arts  faculty,  acquired  special  prominence,  so  much 
so  that  its  head  became  "rector  "  of  the  entire  university.  In  Aberdeen 
at  the  present  day,  the  arts  students  choose  the  "Lord  Rector." 


172  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

the  first  two.  The  number  of  students  reported  as  hav- 
ing attended  some  of  the  universities  in  those  early  days 
almost  passes  belief;  e.g.,  Oxford  is  said  to  have  had 
30,000  about  the  year  1300,  and  half  that  number  even 
as  early  as  1264.  The  numbers  attending  the  univer- 
sity of  Paris  were  still  greater.  These  numbers  become 
less  surprising  when  we  remember  with  what  poor  ac- 
commodations— a  bare  room  and  an  armful  of  straw  * — 
the  students  of  those  days  were  content,  and  what  num- 
bers of  them  even  a  single  teacher  like  Abelard  could, 
long  before,  draw  into  lonely  retreats,  f  That  in  the 
twelfth  and  following  centuries  there  was  no  lack  of 
enthusiasm  for  "study,"  notwithstanding  the  troubled 
condition  of  the  times,  is  very  clear.  The  instruction 
given  at  the  universities,  moreover,  reacted  upon  the 
lower  schools,  raising  their  standard  and  supplying  them 
with  competent  teachers.  Thus,  in  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  education  rose  in  many  European 
states  to  a  height  which  it  had  not  attained  since  the 
days  of  Seneca  and  Quintilian.  This  showed  itself  in 
many  ways,  but  above  all,  in  a  sudden  outburst  of  philoso- 
phy, art,  and  literature.  To  these  centuries  belong  Al- 
bertus  Magnus  and  Eoger  Bacon,  Thomas  Aquinas  and 
Bonaventura,  Cimabue,  Giotto  and  the  cathedral-build- 
ers, Dante  and  Petrarch,  Chaucer  and  Gower,  the  Minne- 
sanger  of  Germany,  and  the  trouveres  and  troubadours 
of  France. 

It  was  the  great  age  of  Scholasticism;!  and  this  word 
means  much.     Scholasticism  is  mediaeval  science,  and 

*  See  Dante  Parad.  X.  137  with  Scartazzini's  note, 
t  See  Remusat,  Abelard,  Vol.  I. ,  pp.  45,  108. 

J  It  is  usual  to  distinguish  three  periods  in  Scholasticism  (1)  Rise 
950-1200  ;  (2)  flower,  1200-1400 ;  (3)  decline,  1400-1600. 


THE  MEDIAEVAL   UNIVEESITIES  173 

this  science,  instead  of  turning  its  attention  directly  to 
nature  and  culture,  turned  it  to  ancient  authorities,  and 
strove  to  reach  truth  by  the  study,  interpretation,  and 
harmonization  of  them.  Science,  in  the  modern  sense, 
hardly  existed;  philosophy  was  the  handmaid  of  revealed 
theology,  which  pronounced  the  final  word  on  all  dis- 
puted questions.  The  knowledge  of  God  was  the  end 
of  all:  research.  The-eulture  of  the  Middle  Age  is  the 
practical  outcofne'~6:f~the~  principles  of  Scholasticism. 

It  is  easy  to  find  fault  with  mediaeval  science  and 
media? val  education;  and,  from  our  modern  point  of 
view,  they  cannot  but  appear  very  faulty.  The  former 
was  authority-bound  and  blind  to  nature;  the  latter  con- 
sisted mostly  of  memory-work  and  subtle  disputation — 
wrangling,  as  it  was  called  in  England.  And  yet  they 
were  exactly  what  the  times  needed.  Scholasticism  was 
necessary  in  order  (1)  to  correct  the  mystical  tendencies 
which  were  sapping  the  energies  of  Europe  and  with- 
drawing the  best  men  and  women  from  the  life  of  the 
world;  (2)  to  put  Europe  in  possession  of  the  rational 
thought  of  the  ancient  world;  (3)  to  counteract  the  al- 
luring but  corrupt  influences  of  Islam.  In  a  word,  it 
saved  Europe  from  moral  suicide,  ignorance,  and  flesh- 
liness.  And  it  did  more.  By  training  men's  minds  in 
logical  method,  it  paved  the  way  for  modern  research 
and  science,  thereby,  to  be  sure,  digging  its  own  grave, 
as  all  things  temporary  in  their  nature  must  do. 

Gb'the,  in  his  Faust,  has  tried  to  embody  the  transi- 
tion from  mediaeval  to  modern  civilization.  In  the  mas- 
querade scene,  in  the  second  part,  the  two  civilizations 
are  represented,  respectively,  by  the  two  principal  groups, 
the  former  moving  slowly  along,  like  a  richly  caparisoned 


174  THE  HISTOEY   OF  EDUCATION 

elephant,  surmounted  by  Victory,  guided  by  Astuteness, 
and  accompanied  by  Fear  and  Hope  in  chains;  the  lat- 
ter, thundering  along  as  two  fire-breathing  dragons,  sur- 
mounted by  Wealth,  and  guided  by  Poetry,  or  Free 
Creative  Imagination.  The  symbolism  in  both  cases  is 
apt  enough,  and  the  transition  was  very  real. 

Thus  far,  all  education,  with  the  exception,  perhaps, 
of  that  inculcated  by  Socrates,  has  been  education  for 
subordination.  "With  the  decay  of  medievalism,  which 
carried  this  subordination  to  its  highest  point,  even  into 
the  conscience  of  the  individual,  a  great  change  took 
place.  Henceforth  education  will  tend,  more  or  less  con- 
sciously, to  the  development  of  freedom  and  individ- 
ualism. The  Germanic  spirit,  which  for  ages  has  been 
struggling  against  Eoman  domination,  with  little  suc- 
cess, will  now  make  itself  felt  and  found  free  states, 
gradually  emancipating  themselves  from  medievalism 
and  supernaturalism. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

RENAISSANCE,  REFORMATION,  AND  COUNTER- 
REFORMATION 

The  truth  shall  make  you  free. — John  viii.  32. 

The  superstition  in  which  we  have  grown  up,  even  when  we 
recognize  it,  does  not  lose  its  power  over  us.  They  are  not  all  free 
who  mock  at  their  chains. — LESSING,  Nathan  the  Wise. 

For,  indeed,  a  change  was  coming  upon  the  world,  the  meaning 
and  direction  of  which  even  still  is  hidden  from  us,  a  change  from 
era  to  era.  The  paths  trodden  by  the  footsteps  of  ages  were 
broken  up  ;  old  things  were  passing  away,  and  the  faith  and  life  of 
ten  centuries  was  dissolving  like  a  dream.  Chivalry  was  dying  ; 
the  abbey  and  the  castle  were  soon  together  to  crumble  into  ruins, 
and  all  the  forms,  desires,  beliefs,  convictions  of  the  old  world 
were  passing  away,  never  to  return.  A  new  continent  had  risen  up 
beyond  the  western  sea.  The  floor  of  heaven,  inlaid  with  stars,  had 
sunk  back  into  an  infinite  abyss  of  immeasurable  space  ;  and  the 
firm  earth  itself,  unfixed  from  its  foundations,  was  seen  to  be  but  a 
small  atom  in  the  awful  vastness  of  the  universe.  In  the  fabric  of 
habit,  which  they  had  so  long  laboriously  built  for  themselves, 
mankind  were  to  remain  no  longer.  And  now  it  is  all  gone — like 
an  unsubstantial  pageant  faded  ;  and  between  us  and  the  old  Eng- 
lish there  lies  a  gulf  of  mystery  which  the  prose  of  the  historian 
will  never  adequately  bridge.  They  cannot  come  to  us,  and  our 
imagination  can  but  feebly  penetrate  to  them.  Only  among  the 
aisles  of  the  cathedral  ;  only  as  we  gaze  upon  their  silent  figures 
sleeping  in  their  tombs,  some  faint  conceptions  float  before  us  of 
what  these  men  were  when  they  were  alive,  and  perhaps  in  the 
sound  of  church-bells,  that  peculiar  creation  of  mediaeval  age, 
which  falls  upon  the  ear  like  the  echo  of  a  vanished  world. — 
FBOUDE,  Henry  VII.,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  63  seq. 

176 


176  THE   HI8TOEY    OF   EDUCATION 

Enthusiasm  for  the  ancient  threatened  to  replace  scholasticism 
by  mere  philology  and  erudition.  This  meant  remaining  in  books, 
whereas  science  is  in  things. — SEAILLES,  Leonard  de  Vinci,  pp. 
185  seq. 

Mediaeval  Europe  underwent  three  Eenaissances,  the 
first  in  the  eighth  century;  the  second  in  the  twelfth; 
the  third  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth.  The  first 
brought  back  something  of  old  Roman  education;  the 
second  introduced  Aristotle  and  the  learning  of  the 
Arabs;  the  third  resuscitated  the  whole  culture  of  the 
ancient  Grseco-Roman  world.  The  first  prepared  for  the 
second;  the  second  for  the  third. 

The  all-embracing  philosophy  of  Aristotle  was  espe- 
cially enlightening  and  effective.  In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, the  admiration  for  it  was  almost  boundless.  The 
great  thinkers  of  the  time,  such  as  Albertus  Magnus 
(1193-1280)  and  Thomas  Aquinas  (1225-1274)  used  it 
to  express  and  systematize  the  dogmas  of  the  Catholic 
faith,  and  from  that  day  to  this  the  philosophy  of  the 
Catholic  Church  has  been  virtually  Aristotelianism.  But 
it  was  impossible  to  confine  his  philosophy  to  this  use. 
His  works  opened  to  the  mediaeval  mind  a  whole  new 
world,  by  no  means  compatible  with  mediaeval  ideals, 
and  strongly  calculated  to  draw  men  away  from  these, 
so  that  many  able  thinkers,  including  even  Dante,*  ran 
the  risk  of  losing  their  faith  and  becoming  pagan  philoso- 
phers. The  later  Scholasticism  (Thomism  and  Scotism) 
left  the  mind  in  anything  but  the  receptive  attitude  fa- 
vorable to  blind  faith,  while  the  higher  Mysticism,  claim- 
ing to  place  the  individual  soul  in  direct  relation  to 
God,  tended  to  encourage  the  belief  that  the  Church 

*See  the  Convivio  (Banquet)  throughout,  and  Purgatory,  XXX., 
70  seq. 


RENAISSANCE  AND   REFORMATION  177 

and  her  ordinances  were  not  essential  to  salvation,  and 
to  strengthen  individualism  and  free  thought.  This  was 
especially  true,  when  Mysticism,  in  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  began  to  reflect  upon  itself  and 
become  scholastic.  Then  arose  heresies  without  num- 
ber, some  of  them  containing  many  elements  of  good, 
some  of  them  foolish  enough.*  Hardly  one  of  them 
thought  of  going  to  the  root  of  things,  and  questioning 
the  principle  of  authority. 

The  human  mind,  thus  "  awakened  from  its  dogmatic 
slumbers,"  began  to  look  about  it,  and  the  results  were 
three  important  discoveries,  and  one  important  inven- 
tion. The  discoveries  of  the  wealth  of  Greek  literature, 
of  America,  and  of  the  Copernican  astronomy,  all  ren- 
dered triply  valuable  by  the  invention  of  printing,  ef- 
fectively broke  up  the  mediaeval  world,  both  physical  and 
moral,  f  and  turned  men's  thoughts  into  entirely  new 
channels — from  faith  to  reason,  and  from  supernature 
to  nature.  Henceforth  Theology  fights  a  losing  battle 
with  Scienee.J  In  course  of  time,  the  new  movement 
eventuated  in  two  great  historic  events,  the  Kenaissance, 
or  rehabilitation  of  Nature,  and  the  Reformation,  or  re- 
habilitation of  Reason,  the  former  in  Italy,  the  latter 
among  the  Germanic  peoples.  The  Church,  while  show- 
ing considerable  favor  for  the  former,  and  indeed,  never 
breaking  with  it,  was  bitterly  opposed  to  the  latter,  a 
fact  which  caused  the  great  Protestant  schism  in  the 
sixteenth  century. 

*  See  Renter,  Oesch.  der  religiosen  Aufklarung  im  Mittelalter ;  and 
Tocco,  UEresia  net  Medio  Evo. 

t  To  see  how  closely  connected  these  were,  one  must  carefully  study 
Dante's  Divine  Comedy. 

t  See  A.  D.  White,  History  of  the  Warfare  of  Theology  with  /Science. 

12 


178  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

The  rehabilitation  of  Reason,  as  a  human  faculty 
capable  of  attaining  truth,  and  as  the  tribunal  before 
which  everything  claiming  to  be  truth  had  to  show  its 
credentials,  and  the  rehabilitation  of  Nature,  as  a  revela- 
tion of  truth  to  Eeason,  meant  the  rehabilitation  of 
science  and  free  philosophy,  and  these  called  for  an  edu- 
cation quite  different  from  the  older  one,  which  had 
consisted  mostly  of  memory-work  and  subtle  disputation 
about  ancient  texts;  for  an  education  in  the  observation 
and  sifting  of  facts  and  in  drawing  legitimate  conclusions 
from  them,  as  well  as  in  the  conduct  of  life  in  accordance 
with  such  conclusions.  Such  is,  in  brief,  the  programme 
of  modern  education,  whose  purpose  is  to  enable  the  in- 
dividual to  live  according  to  truth  understood  and  recog- 
nized by  himself,  and  so,  dispensing  with  authority,  to 
live  freely. 

The  transition  from  medieval  to  modern  education 
was  not  so  rapid  or  marked  as  might  have  been  expected. 
The  reason  for  this  is  clear.  The  Reformation  and  the 
Renaissance,  being  but  half  conscious  of  what  was  in- 
volved in  their  ideals— Reason  and  Nature — proved,  in 
practice,  to  be  but  half  measures,  halting  between  the 
old  and  the  new,  and,  in  defiance  of  their  own  principles, 
bowing  before  authority.  Luther,  the  great  champion  of 
Reason,  was  as  dogmatic  within  certain  limits  as  any 
Church  Father,  while  the  champions  of  Nature  counted 
among  their  number. even  popes  and  cardinals.  Hence  it 
was  that,  for  long  after  the  Reformation  and  Renaissance 
were  in  full  progress,  education  remained  what  it  had 
been  before.  It  was  still  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
clerics,  who  conducted  it  according  to  the  old  methods, 
and  confined  it  to  the  old  subjects.  Science  and  scien- 


EENAISSANCE  AND   EEFOEMATION  179 

tific  methods  played  no  part  in  it,  but  remained  outside, 
strongly  suspected,  and  often  persecuted,  as  magic  or 
black-art.  Even  in  England,  men  were  imprisoned  for 
questioning  the  authority  of  Aristotle,  as  late  as  the 
seventeenth  century,  while  Giordano  Brimo  was  burnt 
in  Eome  in  1600  for  fidelity  to  Nature  and  the  scientific 
method.  The  story  of  Galilei  is  too  well-known  to  need 
more  than  a  reference.  Indeed,  the  history  of  education, 
from  Luther's  day  to  our  own,  is  very  largely  the  his- 
tory of  a  struggle  between  supernaturalism  and  author- 
ity on  the  one  hand,  and  nature  and  science  on  the  other. 
And  the  struggle  is  by  no  means  yet  at  an  end. 

Nevertheless,  from  the  fifteenth  century  onward,  there 
are  observable  four  growing  tendencies  in  education — (1) 
the  endeavor  to  make  it  natural  and  practical,  instead 
of  abstract  and  theoretical;  (2)  the  endeavor  to  include 
in  it  care  for  the  body,  so  sadly  neglected  and  despised 
in  the  previous  centuries;  (3)  the  endeavor  to  extend  it 
to  all  classes  of  the  people,  and  not  merely  to  clerics,  as 
formerly;  (4)  the  endeavor  to  adopt  gentle  and  attrac- 
tive methods,  instead  of  the  harsh  and  repulsive  ones 
formerly  in  use.  We  find  most  of  these  tendencies  in 
Rabelais  (1483-1553),  and  even  in  Erasmus  (1467-1536), 
and  Montaigne  (1533-1592).  These  were,  nominally  at 
least,  Catholics;  but  we  find  the  same  tendencies,  in 
perhaps  even  a  stronger  degree,  among  the  Protestants. 
One  of  them,  the  effort  to  extend  education  to  all  classes, 
was  a  logical  outcome  of  the  fundamental  principle  of 
the  Reformation.  People  who  are  expected  to  accept 
truth  from  authority,  may  be  left  in  ignorance;  but  peo- 
ple who  are  expected  to  judge  of  truth  for  themselves, 
must  be  educated.  The  effort  at  universal  education 


180  THE  HISTOEY  OF   EDUCATION 

naturally  resulted  in  the  cultivation  of  the  popular  dia- 
lects and  the  translation  of  the  sacred  writings  into  them. 
Up  to  the  date  of  the  Reformation  nearly  all  books  of  a 
serious  sort  were  written  in  Latin;  after  that  date  they 
were  composed  more  and  more  in  the  popular  dialects.* 
The  advantage  to  popular  education  resulting  from  this 
change  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
)  Among  the  early  reformers,  the  great  champions 
of  education  were  Luther  (1483-1546),  Melanchthon 
(1479-1560),  and  Knox  (1505-1572).  Luther  inveighed 
bitterly  against  the  stupefying  educational  methods  of 
his  time,  and  demanded  public  schools  and  compulsory 
education  of  aliberal  sort  for  children  of  either  sex.  He 
discarded  the  harsh  repressive  methods  of  the  past,  and 
demanded  the  children  should  be  treated  gently,  and  al- 
lowed to  have  a  large  amount  of  freedom.  He  made 
careful  provision  for  the  training  of  teachers,  male  and 
female.  He  showed  the  limitations  of  his  time,  how- 
ever, when  he  came  to  draw  up  a  programme  of  educa- 
tion. It  was  to  consist  of  the  study  of  religion,  succeeded 
by  that  of  Latin,  Greek1  and  Hebrew,  with  a  little  mathe- 
matics and  logic.  Though  he  himself  translated  the 
Bible  into  German,  he  left  no  place  for  the  study  of  that 

*  Latin  was  the  official  language  of  the  Church,  intelligible,  for  the 
most  part,  only  to  the  learned.  Wherever  it  was  abandoned,  in  favor  of 
the  popular  idioms,  we  can  detect  a  more  or  less  conscious  departure 
from  the  spirit  and  policy  of  the  Church.  In  Italy,  Dante,  who  writes 
his  noblest  works  in  Italian,  is  an  unsparing  censor  of  the  Church.  In 


Germany,  the  mystics,  often  sadly  unorthodox,  write  in  German.  In 
England,  Langlande  writes  in  English  his  Piers  Plowman,  a  bitter  satire 
upon  the  clergy.  Chaucer  is  the  contemporary  of  Wiclif,  and  so  on.  In 
later  times,  Rabelais  and  Montaigne  write  in  French,  Lionardo  da  Vinci 
in  Italian,  and  Luther  in  German.  Thomas  More  and  Francis  Bacon 
write  partly  in  Latin  and  partly  in  English.  The  universities,  from 
sheer  inertia  and  habit,  stuck  to  Latin  long  after  it  had  been  abandoned 
almost  everywhere  else.  It  was  a  great  advantage  to  Islam  that  its  sacred 
book  was  written  in  the  language  of  the  people,  and  placed  in  their  hands 
from  the  very  first.  t 


RENAISSANCE   AND   REFORMATION  181 

language.  The  notion  of  instruction  in  science  had  not 
even  dawned  on  him;  but  he  recommended  the  teach- 
ing of  gymnastics  and  music.  In  one  respect  he  was 
superior  to  nearly  all  other  educational  reformers.  He 
clearly  saw  that,  if  ever  education  was  to  reach  the  chil- 
dren of  the  laboring  classes,  it  must  be  imparted  largely 
after  they  had  "gone  to  work."  He,  accordingly,  ad- 
vised that  young  people  earning  their  own  livelihood 
should  be  permitted  to  attend  school  one  or  two  hours 
a  day.  In  this  way  he  may  be  said  to  have  solved  the 
problem  of  the  education  of  the  working  classes,  and 
we  have  still  much  to  learn  from  him.  On  the  whole, 
the  education  advocated  by  Luther  was  of  the  mediaeval 
sort,  but  transfused  with  the  modern  spirit  of  humanity 
and  freedom.  It  had  but  little  effect  on  subsequent  edu- 
cation, even  among  protestants. 

Melanchthon,  styled  "Preceptor  Germanise,"  did 
much  to  revive  higher  education,  and  to  introduce  an 
improved  method  of  teaching  in  the  universities.  In 
spite  of  Luther's  bitter  denunciations  of  Aristotle,  Me- 
lanchthon clung  to  him,  simply  because  he  found  that 
he  could  not  be  dispensed  with;  and  this  Luther  himself 
ultimately  saw.  With  the  consent  of  the  latter,  he  pub- 
'lished  works  on  Aristotelian  Logic,  Ethics,  and  Psy- 
chology, which  long  remained  the  text-books  on  these 
subjects.  But  he  introduced  no  new  principle  into 
education  or  thought.  He  had  no  notion  of  scientific 
method,  and  placed  authority  above  truth.  He  adhered 
to  astrology  and  the  mediaeval  view  of  the  construction 
of  the  universe,  and,  like  Luther,  rejected,  as  contrary 
to  divine  revelation  (the  highest  authority  for  all  truth), 
the  Copernican  theory.  How  little  he  believed  in  free 


182  THE  HISTORY    OF   EDUCATION 

discussion  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  like  John  Knox, 
he  advocated  the  execution  of  heretics,  and  declared  the 
burning  of  the  Unitarian  Servetus,  by -Calvin,  to  be  "  a 
pious  and  memorable  example  to  all  posterity."  So  un- 
faithful were  these  men  to  the  fundamental  thought  of 
Protestantism! 

John  Knox,  who,  by  means  of  the  authority  claimed 
by  the  Calvinists  for  the  Church  of  Christ,  broke  the 
bonds  of.  feudalism  and  royal  prestige  in  Scotland,  was 
the  chief  agent  in  the  establishment  of  her  parish-schools, 
which  have  done  so  much  to  raise  the  level  of  intelli- 
gence, capacity,  and  moral  self-respect  among  her  people. 
Though  these  schools  were  specially  intended  to  give  in- 
struction in  reading,  writing,  and  the  elements  of  re- 
ligious faith,  the  Bible  being  the  chief  text-book;  yet, 
since  the  masters  were  mostly  graduates  of  universities, 
it  was  possible  for  boys  to  receive  in  them  a  complete 
preparation  for  these  higher  institutions.  Thus  the  sons 
of  the  poorest  peasants  and  laborers  found  their  way  to 
the  universities,  and  thence  into  the  liberal  professions; 
and  the  possibility  of  this  imparted  an  energy-rousing 
stimulus  of  hope  to  every  family  in  the  land.  In  no  coun- 
try in  the  world  have  the  schools  and  universities  been  a 
greater  blessing  to  the  whole  body  of  the  people  than 
in  Scotland. 

The  other  reformers,  Calvin,  Zwingli,  etc.,  did  com- 
paratively little,  in  a  direct  way,  to  further  education. 
Indeed,  the  Reformation  was,  on  the  whole,  such  a  hesi- 
tating and  uncertain  movement,  and  its  champions  were 
so  blind  and  disloyal  to  its  fundamental  principle,  and 
so  divided  in  opinion,  that  it  produced  no  new  philosophy 
and  no  new  education.  It  left  education  subject  to  an- 


KENAISSANCE  AND   REFOKMATION  183 

thority  and  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy.  It  gave  birth 
to  no  mighty  genius  who,  grasping  the  full  meaning 
and  scope  of  the  principle  of  private  judgment,  could 
give  it  expression  in  a  theory  and  a  practice  in  which 
authority  had  no  part.  The  philosophy  and  education 
proper  to  Protestantism  did  not  come  till  much  later, 
and  are,  indeed,'  only  beginning  to  be  realized  at  the  pres- 
ent day.  The  fact  is,  the  rehabilitation  of  Eeason  could 
not  produce  these  things,  until  it  was  supplemented  by 
the  rehabilitation  of  Nature.  Nature  (in  the  full  sense 
of  the  term)  is  the  essential  content  of  Reason. 

By  failing  to  introduce  an  education  based  upon  its 
own  principle  of  freedom,  Protestantism  left  the  field 
open  to  its  opponent,  Catholicism,  the  champion  of  au- 
thority, and  this  field  was  almost  immediately  occupied 
by  one  of  its  most  loyal  and  typical  champions,  a  man 
devoted,  with  perfect  singleness  of  heart  and  indiverti- 
bility  of  aim,  to  all  that  it  stood  and  stands  for — Ignatius 
de  Loyola,*  the  mystical,  intensely  practical  founder  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  educational  system  of  the  Jesu- 
its can  scarcely  claim  a  place  in  a  "  History  of  Educa- 
tion as  Conscious  Evolution,"  unless  we  make  the  last 
term  include  evolution  backwards;  and  this  we  may 

*  Born  in  1491  at  the  castle  of  Loyola,  Spain ;  enters  the  army  as  a 
youth ;  is  wounded  afr  Pampeluna  (1522) ;  during  convalescence  reads  the 
Lives  of  Jesus  and  the  Saints,  and  resolves  to  become  a  soldier  of  the 
Cross ;  has  visions  at  Montserrat  and  Manresa  ;  makes  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land  (1524);  devotes  himself  amid  great  difficulties,  and  at  first  with 
slight  success,  to  study  (1524-^5)  ;  attempts  a  second  visit  to  the  Holy 
Land  but  fails  on  account  of  war  (1537)  ;  himself  and  fellows  accepted 
by  the  Pope  (1539) ;  receives  papal  charter  for  his  society  (1540) ;  draws 
up  a  Constitution  of  his  Order  (1550  sqq.) ;  dies  1556.  See  Hughes, 
Jjoyola,  or  the  Educational  System  of  the  Jesuits,  in  the  "  Great  Edu- 
cators." Presuming  tha£*this  book,  being  written  by  a  member  of  the 
society,  is  at  least  fair  to  it,  I  have  drawn  my  statements  very  largely 
from  it.  Compare,  for  a  very  different  view,  Gioberti,  11  Gesuila  Moderno. 


184  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

for  once  do.  While  the  Protestant  world  was,  more  or 
less  blindly,  struggling  to  cast  off  the  shackles  of  author- 
ity and  rise  to  freedom,  the  Society  of  Jesus,  in  perfect 
good  faith,  and  with  pious  intent,  undertook  to  weld 
these  shackles  on  more  firmly  than  ever.  It  undertook 
to  defend  and  extend  Catholic  faith  and  authority,  in 
their  most  pronounced  forms,  and  to  educate  the  world 
back  into  complete  submission  to  them.  In  doing  so, 
it  had  to  set  its  face  against  freedom  of  thought,  and,  in 
certain  directions  at  least,  to  freedom  of  inquiry,  and 
this,  naturally,  involved  the  use  of  methods  which 
brought  upon  it  the  suspicion  and  hatred  of  the  outside 
world.  To  defend  any  notion,  or  system  of  notions,  on 
any  other  basis  than  because  it  is  true,  and  demonstrably 
so,  is  to  undertake  a  task  which  can  be  accomplished 
only  by  hateful  and  tyrannical  methods,  and  these  will 
be  bitterly  resented  by  all  rationally  trained,  self-respect- 
ing men,  no  matter  how  pious,  well-meaning,  gentle, 
and  insinuating  those  who  employ  them  may  be.  The 
unpopularity  of  the  Jesuits  is  sufficiently  explained  when 
we  say  that  they  planted  themselves  square  in  the  path 
of  human  progress  toward  freedom  of  thought  and  action. 
The  Society  of  Jesus  was  a  great  military  organiza- 
tion, a  Catholic  "  Salvation  Army,"  with  methods  very 
much  resembling  those  of  its  later  imitator.  In  its  plan 
of  salvation  was  included,  above  all,  education.  Hence 
its  camps,  forts,  and  walled  towns  were  grammar  schools, 
colleges,  and  universities,  which  were  manned  according 
to  the  will  of  the  "  General "  and  his  staff.  Its  officers 
were  men  who,  having  forsaken  the  world,  and  taken  the 
monastic  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  had 
received  a  careful  military  training  for  their  duties,  and 


RENAISSANCE  AND   EEFOEMATION  185 

were  ever  ready  to  go  where  they  were  ordered,  to  aid 
in  reconquering  the  world  for  Catholicism  and  super- 
naturalism.  With  excellent  judgment,  from  their  point 
of  view,  they  refused  to  concern  themselves  with  primary 
instruction,  and  even  opposed  the  education  of  the  work- 
ing classes,  confining  themselves  to  the  higher  education 
of  those — nobles  and  others — who  were  destined  for  the 
higher  walks  of  life. 

In  drawing  up  their  scheme  of  education,  they  showed 
great  practical  wisdom,  and  a  keen  sense  of  the  demands 
of  the  time.  These  demands  they  tried  to  satisfy,  and, 
at  the  same  time  to  maintain  intact  the  principles  of 
authority  and  supernaturalism.  Hence  they  vied  with 
the  Eeformers  in  their  devotion  to  logic  and  rhetoric, 
and  with  the  Humanists  of  the  Eenaissance  in  their  de- 
votion to  classical  learning;  but  they  did  all  this  under 
the  asgis  of  the  strictly  orthodox  Dominican  doctor, 
Thomas  Aquinas  (1225-1274),  whose  philosophy  *  they 
made  their  standard,  and  in  whose  spirit  they  taught. 
In  this  way  they  were  able  to  draw  to  their  schools  young 
men  belonging  to  families  of  all  persuasions,  and  to  give 
them  what  they  desired.  Being  unable,  however,  to  use 
as  a  stimulus  the  natural  delight  that  comes  from  the 
untrammeled  investigation  and  discovery  of  truth,  and, 
hence,  to  interest  their  pupils  in  study  for  its  own  sake, 
they  were  forced  to  employ  all  sorts  of  inferior  and  un- 
natural stimuli,  both  to  attract  and  to  retain  them — 
emulation,  titles,  prizes,  decorations,  public  exhibitions, 
dramatic  representations,  etc.  Ehetoric,  which  enabled 

*  Under  their  influence,  it  was  made  the  standard  philosophy  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  by  the  papal  encyclical,  ^Eterni  Patris,  promulgated 
in  1879. 


186  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

the  young  men  to  distinguish  themselves  in  public,  and 
to  defend  their  acquired  opinions  in  private,  occupied 
a  chief  place  in  their  system.  Thus  study  was  pursued, 
not  for  the  sake  of  truth,  but  for  the  sake  of  distinction. 
In  the  matter  of  moral  education,  the  aim  of  the  Jesuits 
was  to  cultivate  a  blameless  submissiveness,  a  cloistral 
virtue,  through  the  enforcement  of  strict  obedience,  the 
removal  of  all  occasions  of  sin,  and  the  continual  presen- 
tation of  the  glorious  rewards  and  hideous  punishments 
of  the  future  life.*  The  cultivation  of  independent 
moral  strength,  implying,  as  it  does,  freedom  of  thought, 
they  did  not,  and  could  not,  attempt.  Their  ideal  was 
the  devoted  Christian  soldier,  marching  in  strict,  un- 
questioning obedience  to  orders  held  to  be  divine,  and 
employing,  with  power  and  dexterity,  all  the  weapons 
of  the  spirit  for  the  conquest  of  an  heretical  world,  that 
was  tending  to  unbelief,  rationalism,  and  insubordina- 
tion. The  aim,  they  held,  justified  the  means. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  when  its 
religious  enthusiasm  was  fresh,  genuine,  and  chivalrous, 
it  seems  to  have  done  excellent  work  in  education.  Both 
Baconf  (1561-1626)  and  Descartes  (1596-1650)  praise 
it  highly.  But  after  the  rise  of  true  protestant  educa- 
tion, due,  in  large  measure,  to  these  very  men,  it  seems 
to  have  sunk  ever  lower  and  lower.  Leibniz  (1646-1716) 
tells  us  that  in  education  "the  Jesuits  have  remained 
below  mediocrity,"  while  Voltaire  (1694-1778)  declares 
that  they  taught  him  "nothing  but  Latin  and  non- 
sense." There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  all  these 


*See  Ignatius'  Exercitla  Spirltualia. 

t  See  Hughes.  Loyola,  pp.  46,  92  ;  cf.  p.  105. 

t  See  Compayr6,  History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  141  (Eng.  Trans.). 


RENAISSANCE   AND   REFORMATION  187 

judgments  are  substantially  correct.  In  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  many  distinguished  men  came 
forth  from  Jesuit  institutions;  but  their  number  kept 
steadily  diminishing  in  the  eighteenth,  till  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  society  in  1754,  by  Pope  Clement  XIV. 
«  The  first  Jesuit  Colleges  were  founded  in  1542,  one 
at'Coimbra  in  Portugal,  another  at  Goa  in  India.  After 
that  they  increased  with  extraordinary  rapidity  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world.  From  almost  the  first,  the 
schools  were  of  three  grades — (1)  Grammar  or  Latin 
Schools,  (2)  Colleges  or  Lyceums,  (3)  General  Studies 
or  Universities.  Of  all  these  taken  together  there  were, 
at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  no  fewer  than 
769,  with  perhaps  200,000  students.  At  the  time  of 
the  suppression  they  had  still  728.  Indeed,  for  two  hun- 
dred years  the  education  of  Christendom  may  be  said 
to  have  been  in  their  hands. 

In  the  Constitution  of  the  society,  begun  after  over 
ten  years  of  educational  experience,  Ignatius  devoted 
considerable  space  to  the  matter  of  education  and  gave 
a  clear  outline  of  the  plan  to  be  pursued  by  his  follow- 
ers. Further  regulations  were  made  by  his  more  im- 
mediate successors;  but  it  was  not  until  1599,  under  the 
generalship  of  Aquaviva,  that  the  famous  Ratio  Stu- 
diorum  finally  appeared.  This  has  been  the  norm  of 
all  Jesuit  education  ever  since.  It  underwent  certain 
modifications  in  1832;  but  these  did  not  affect  its  spirit. 
It  is  both  impossible  and  unnecessary  to  enter  into  the 
details  of  this  here.  Its  general  tendency  has  already 
been  indicated. 

While  it  is  impossible  for  lovers  of  truth  and  freedom 
to  have  any  sympathy  with  either  the  aim  or  the  matter 


188  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

of  Jesuit  education,  there  is  one  point  connected  with 
it  that  well  deserves  our  most  serious  consideration,  and 
that  is  its  success.  This  was  due  to  three  causes,  -first, 
to  the  single-minded  devotion  of  the  members  of  the 
society;  second,  to  their  clear  insight  into  the  needs  of 
their  time;  third,  to  the  completeness  with  which  they 
systematized  their  entire  course,  in  view  of  a  single  well- 
defined  aim.  In  all  these  matters,  we  can  well  afford 
to  imitate  them.  Indeed,  the  education  of  the  present 
day  demands  just  the  three  conditions  which  they  real- 
ized: first,  a  great,  coherent  society  of  teachers,  utterly 
devoted  to  the  work  of  education;  second,  a  clear  in- 
sight into  the  nature  and  scope  of  the  education  needed 
in  our  day;  and,  third,  a  completely  graded  system  of 
instruction,  worked  out  in  view  of  the  highest  ideal  of 
individual  and  social  life.  If  the  Jesuits  can  leave  these 
three  things  as  a  bequest  to  the  world,  their  existence 
will  not  have  been  in  vain. 

We  have  seen  that  the  field  of  primary  education  was 
left  unoccupied  by  the  Jesuits.  Several  attempts  to  oc- 
cupy it  were  made  by  others  in  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries — by  Father  Calasanzio  (died  1648),  the 
founder  of  the  Scuole  Pie  (Pious  Schools),  which  in  time 
became  very  numerous;  by  Father  Demia  who,  in  1666, 
founded  the  Congregation  of  the  Brethren  of  St.  Charles, 
etc.;  but  no  great  advance  was  made  until  the  advent 
of  La  Salle  (1651-1719),  the  founder  of  the  "  Christian 
Schools/'  which  are  still  in  a  flourishing  condition.  La 
Salle  was  a  saint  of  ascetic  tendencies,  and  deeply  in- 
terested in  the  poor.  He  strove  to  do  for  the  lower 
classes  what  the  Jesuits  had  done  for  the  upper,  and 
with  the  same  purpose.  His  program  consisted  of  "  the 


RENAISSANCE  AND   REFORMATION  189 

three  K's,"  with,  spelling  and  catechism.  He  limited 
the  use  of  corporal  punishment,  and  laid  great  stress 
upon  conduct;  but  he  had  no  sense  of  the  dignity  of  the 
child,  or  any  desire  that  he  should  attain  truth  or  moral 
freedom.  He  exalted  authority,  and  did  his  best  to  cul- 
tivate submissiveness.  The  best  that  can  be  said  of  his 
work  is  that  it  was  a  great  improvement  upon  anything 
existing  in  France  before  it. 

Thus,  neither  the  Eef  ormation,  nor  the  counter-Kef  or- 
mation  took  any  decided  step  forward  in  education — 
any  step  toward  science  and  freedom — and  the  latter 
even  took  a  step  backward.  Both  left  education  in  the 
hands  of  the  clergy;  both  retained  the  principle  of  au- 
thority, and  looked  to  tradition,  not  to  nature  and  ex- 
perience, for  truth.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Eenais- 
sance,  in  so  far  as  it  was  merely  a  resuscitation  of  the 
literature  and  science  of  the  Greek  world.  It  merely 
substituted  one  authority  for  another,  in  many  cases 
the  authority  of  Plato  for  that  of  Aristotle.  Neverthe- 
less, it  did  pave  the  way  for  better  things.  By  dividing 
the  seat  of  authority,  it  helped  to  discredit  and  weaken 
authority  itself;  and  by  opening  up  the  speculations  of 
Greek  science,  it  taught  men  to  speculate  on,  and  ulti- 
mately to  investigate,  the  facts  and  processes  of  nature. 
When  they  did  this,  a  new  era  began. 


DIVISION  III. 
MODERN  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  FIFTEENTH,  SIXTEENTH,  AND  SEVENTEENTH 
CENTURIES 

There  are  two  ways  of  reaching  knowledge,  the  one  by  reasoning, 
the  other  by  experience.  Reasoning  concludes,  and  enables  us  to 
conclude  an  inquiry  ;  but  it  does  not  impart  certainty  or  remove 
doubt,  enabling  the  spirit  to  rest  in  the  intuition  of  truth,  unless  it 
finds  truth  by  way  of  experience. — ROGER  BACON. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  experience.  One  comes  through  the  ex- 
ternal senses ;  and  in  this  way  we  experience,  by  instruments  made 
for  the  purpose,  the  things  which  are  in  heaven  and,  by  facts  certi- 
fied to  vision,  the  things  which  are  on  earth  ;  while  we  know  those 
things  which  do  not  occur  in  the  places  where  we  are  through 
other  wise  men  who  have  experienced  them.  This  is  human  and 
philosophic  experience.  But  this  is  not  sufficient  for  man,  because 
it  does  not  impart  complete  certitude  respecting  things  corporeal,  by 
reason  of  their  intrinsic  difficulty,  and  is  altogether  barren  in  the  case 
of  things  spiritual.  The  intellect,  therefore,  has  to  receive  aid  from 
another  source  ;  for  which  reason  the  holy  patriarchs  and  prophets, 
who  first  gave  sciences  to  the  world,  received  internal  illuminations, 
and  were  not  confined  to  the  senses.  And  the  same  is  true  of  many 
believers  through  Christ  For  much  illumination  comes  through 
the  grace  of  faith,  and  through  divine  inspirations,  not  only  in 
spiritual,  but  also  in  corporeal  things,  and  in  the  sciences  of  phi- 
losophy.— Id. 

190 


FIFTEENTH   TO   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURIES      191 

He  who,  in  disputing,  cites  an  authority,  makes  use,  not  of  his 
judgment,  but  of  his  memory. — LIONARDO  DA  VINCI. 

If  I  cannot,  like  them,  cite  authorities,  I  shall  appeal  to  some- 
thing much  higher  and  worthier,  to  experience,  the  mistress  of 
their  masters. — Id. 

With  regard  to  authority,  Lionardo  da  Vinci  pronounces  himself 
with  as  much  clearness  as  Bacon.  He  shows  all  the  absurdity, 
illogicality,  and  immorality,  in  that  superstitious  religion  of  an- 
tiquity.— SEAILLES,  Leonard  de  Vinci,  p.  187. 

Give  me  for  a  few  years  the  direction  of  education,  and  I  will 
undertake  to  transform  the  world. — LEIBNIZ. 

Nihil  est  in  intellectu  quod  non  prius  fuerit  in  sensu. 

The  well  educating  of  their  children  is  so  much  the  duty  and 
concern  of  parents,  and  the  welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  nation  so 
much  depends  on  it,  that  I  would  have  every  one  lay  it  seriously  to 
heart;  and,  after  having  well  examined  and  distinguished  what 
fancy,  custom,  or  reason  advises  in  the  case,  set  his  helping  hand 
to  promote  everywhere  that  way  of  training  up  youth,  with  regard 
to  their  several  conditions,  which  is  the  easiest,  shortest  and  like- 
liest to  produce  virtuous,  useful,  and  able  men,  in  their  distinct 
callings ;  though  that  most  to  be  taken  care  of  is  the  gentleman's 
calling.  For  if  those  of  that  rank  are  by  their  education  once  set 
right,  they  will  quickly  bring  all  the  rest  into  order. — LOCKE,  Some 
Thoughts  concerning  Education  (Epistle  Dedicatory). 

Modern  education,  which  is  correlated  with  modern 
science,  dates  from  the  time  when  men  began  to  study 
nature,  and  to  record  their  experience.  The  first  man 
who,  in  modern  times,  attempted  to  do  this  was  the 
Franciscan  friar,  Roger  Bacon  (1214-1294);  but  he,  de- 
spite certain  profound,  and  almost  marvellous,  insights, 
was  still  so  deeply  tinged  with  Mysticism  and  respect 
for  authority  that  his  efforts  met  with  little  or  no  re- 
sponse, and  he  spent  many  years  of  his  life  in  prison,  as 
a  disturber  of  the  faith. 


192  THE  HISTOEY  OF  EDUCATION 

The  first  man  who  really  escaped  from  the  fetters  of 
authority  and  Mysticism,  and  committed  himself  fear- 
lessly to  experience,  was  Lionardo  da  Vinci  (1452-1519), 
perhaps  the  greatest  genius  that  Europe  ever  saw,*  and 
one  whom  we  are  but  now  coming  fully  to  appreciate. 
"  Scholasticism  does  not  exist  for  him.  A  happy  igno- 
rance sets  him  free,  without  his  being  aware  of  it.  The 
separation  of  philosophy  from  theology  is  not  even  af- 
firmed, it  is  assumed."!  "  With  as  little  effort,  and 
with  the  same  ease,  he  avoids  the  dangers  of  humanism. 
.  .  .  Lionardo  da  Vinci  is  a  modern  man,  free  from 
humanism  as  from  scholasticism."  \  The  world  has 
never  known  a  more  acute,  interested,  and  genial  ob- 
server than  he,  or  a  man  more  capable  of  expressing,  in 
the  forms  of  literature  and  art,  the  result  of  his  observa- 
tions. He  practised  the  method  of  science;  but  he  did 
so  without  formulating  it. 

The  latter  task  was  left  for  a  man  of  another  race,  for 
the  Englishman,  Francis  Bacon  (1561-1626),  who,  what- 
ever his  errors,  intellectual  and  moral,  may  be  called  the 
father  of  modern  science.  Aristotle,  in  ancient  times,  had 
advocated  and  practised  (even  better  than  Bacon!)  in- 
duction^ in  recent  times,  Bernardino  Telesio  (1508- 
1588)  had  insisted  that  all  science  must  be  based  upon 
experience  and  induction;  nevertheless,  to  Bacon  be- 
longs the  credit  of  having  secured  currency  and  following 
for  the  experimental  and  inductive  method  of  science, 

*  See  Hallam,  Lit.  Hist,  of  Europe,  VoL  I.  p.  218.  Seailles,  Leonard 
de  Vinci,  C  Artiste  et  le  /savant,  Paris,  1892.  Muntz,  La  Vie  et  let 
Auvres  de  Leonard  de  Vinci.  Paris,  1900. 

t  See  Seailles,  ut  sup.,  p.  185. 

t  Seailles,  Leonard  de  Vinci,  pp.185  seq. 

§  Bacon,  like  Luther  and  Ramvm,  was  unjustly  severe  upon  Aristotle, 
•whom  he  did  not  understand.  Like  Luther  and  Knox,  he  showed  a  sad 
lack  of  scientific  spirit  in  rejecting  the  Copernican  astronomy. 


FIFTEENTH  TO   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURIES      193 

<*• 

as  opposed  to  the  authoritative  and  deductive.  With 
him  "book-science,  which  suppresses  intelligence,  on 
pretence  of  cultivating  it,"  *  came  to  an  end,  and  was 
slowly  replaced  by  the  direct  study  of  nature.  Two 
great  discoveries,  that  of  the  Copernican  astronomy,  and 
that  of  America,  both  contributing  to  break  up  that  view 
of  the  universe  which  lay  at  the  basis  of  mediaeval  sci- 
ence, helped  to  facilitate  this  change.  From  now  on, 
we  find  a  tendency  to  withdraw  education  from  authority 
and  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  and  to  commit  it  to  science 
and  the  hands  of  laymen. 

Bacon  himself  did  little  directly  for  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation; but  his  works  proved  an  inspiration  to  men  who 
did  much.  Prominent  among  these  was  the  man  who 
has  been  called  the  "  Bacon  of  modern  education,"  f 
and  may  justly  be  called  its  father — John  Amos  Co- 
menius.J  There  is  no  better  testimony  to  the  value  of  1 
Bacon's  method  than  the  fact  that,  under  its  impulse, 
this  man  leapt,  almost  at  one  bound,  from  the  repressive 
education  of  the  Middle  Age  to  the  freedom-giving  edu- 
cation of  our  own  times.  It  may  be  truly  said  that  all 
modern  education  has  been  built  up  upon  the  founda- 
tion which  he  laid.  He  saw  and  emphasized  the  need 

*  Seailles,  Leonard  de  Vinci,  p.  188. 

t  Compayre,  Hist,  of  Pedagogy,  p.  122  (Eng.  Trans.). 

t  Properly  Komensky,  born  at  Nivnitz,  Moravia,  1592  ;  lost  his  parents 
early ;  studied  at  Strassnick,  Herborn  (Nassau),  Amsterdam,  Heidel- 
berg. Made  head  of  Moravian  Brethren's  school  at  Fulneck,  1618,  when 
he  was  ordained  and  married ;  driven  out  by  persecution  1627 ;  is  called 
to  superintend  the  education  of  several  countries— Sweden,  England,  etc. ; 
works  at  Elbrog  in  Prussia,  1641-48  ;  goes  to  Lissa  in  Poland,  and  be- 
comes senior  bishop  of  the  Moravians ;  in  Transylvania,  1650-54  ;  in 
that  year  returns  to  Lissa,  which  is  burnt  by  the  Poles ;  loses  all  hia 
property,  and  has  to  retire  to  Amsterdam,  to  his  patron  De  Geer.  Spends 
a  quiet  old  age,  and  publishes  a  complete  editiemof  his  pedagogical  works ; 
dies  1671.  See  Art.  Comenius  in  "Universa/ Encyclopaedia" ;  Laurie, 
Life  of  Comenius  ;  Quick,  Educational  Reformers. 

13 


194  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

of  universal  education,  as  the  essential  condition  of  uni- 
versal freedom,  and,  through  good  and  evil  report,  de- 
voted himself  to  the  instruction  of  the  lower  classes.  The 
Jesuits  had  done  something  toward  the  systematization 
of  the  higher  studies;  but  Comenius  was  the  first  who 
arranged  a  course  of  instruction  extending  from  infancy 
to  manhood — a  course  including  four  grades,  or  schools, 
(1)  the  home-school  (Kindergarten!),  (2)  the  primary, 
elementary,  common,  or  district  school,  (3)  the  grammar 
or  Latin  school  (gymnasium),  (4)  the  academy,  college, 
or  university.  The  first,  he"  held,  should  be  found  in 
every  family;  the  second,  in  every  village,  parish  or  dis- 
trict; the  third,  in  every  city  or  township;  the  fourth  in 
every  kingdom,  province,  or  state.*  The  course  in  each 
institution  was  to  extend  over  six  years,  so  that  the  pupil 
who  took  the  whole  should  finish  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
four.  In  one  respect,  each  school  was  preparatory  to  all 
that  followed  it;  in  another,  it  was  complete  in  itself, 
representing  a  certain  grade  of  general  education,  cor- 
responding to  a  certain  grade  of  vocation.  The  first  two 
grades  were  to  be  traversed  by  every  child,  male  or  fe- 
male; and  the  instruction  in  them  was  to  be  given  in 
the  common  language — hence  the  term,  "common" 
schools.  The  two  higher  grades  were  to  be  taken  by 
boys  intending  to  pursue  the  higher  professions,  and  in 
these  he  was  still  willing  that  Latin  should  be  employed. 
With  true  pedagogic  instinct,  Comenius  recognized 
that  children's  faculties  should  be  drawn  out  in  their 
natural  order — perception,  memory,  imagination,  rea- 
sonf — and  through  things  and  facts  rather  than  through 

*  Cf.  the  Chinese  system,  pp.  41  sqq. 

t  Cf .  Preyer,  Die  Seele  des  Kindes,  and  Baldwin,  Mental  Development 
in  the  Child  and  in  the  Race. 


FIFTEENTH   TO   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURIES      195 

books,  the  function  of  the  latter  being  to  supplement  the 
experience  of  the  individual  by  that  of  the  race.  He  saw 
that  the  latter  can  be  interpreted  only  in  terms  of  the 
former,  and  that  where  there  is  little  individual  experi- 
ence, the  race  experience  recorded  in  books  can  be  but 
poorly  interpreted.  He  insisted  that  education  begins  at 
birth,  and  that  very  young  children  may,  in  the  home, 
acquire  the  first  elements  of  physics  (dynamics,  optics, 
acoustics),  natural  history  (botany,  zoology,  etc.),  history, 
geography,  chronology,  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy, 
grammar,  and  even  of  logic,  metaphysics,  ethics  and 
politics.  With  all  this,  he  did  not  neglect  physical  ex- 
ercise and  manual  training.  He  fully  recognized  the 
intellectual  and  moral  value  of  productive  activity.  He 
insisted  that  schools  should  be  built  in  healthy  situations, 
and  have  plenty  of  free  space  about  them.  In  the  pri- 
mary schools  the  home  studies  were  to  be  carried  further, 
others  were  to  be  added,  and  a  rounded  education,  fitting 
for  the  ordinary  walks  of  life,  was  to  be  imparted.  In 
the  higher  institutions,  foreign  languages  and  the  whole 
circle  of  the  sciences  were  to  be  studied.  The  former 
were  to  be  learnt  by  the  natural  method,  grammar  com- 
ing in  merely  as  a  corrective  of  use;  the  latter  by  ob- 
servation, experiment,  and  generalization.  Comenius 
does  not  seem  to  have  distinguished  very  clearly  between 
culture,  erudition,  and  professional  training;  and  noth- 
ing better  shows  our  dependence  on  him  than  the  fact 
that  in  America  they  are  not  clearly  distinguished  to 
this  day.  Comenius,  like  Bacon,  paid  his  tribute  to  the 
Middle  Age,  in  adhering  to  the  belief  that  science  could 
be  eked  out  with  a  sort  of  mystic  vision  and  thaumaturgic 
activity,  in  such  a  way  that  man  might  finally  come  to 


196  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

have  complete  control  over  nature,  as  well  as  complete 
knowledge.*  Of  the  many  books  which  he  wrote,  the 
large  majority  show  this  mystic,  theosophic  tendency,  his 
educational  system  being  propounded,  mainly,  in  three 
works — (1)  Didaclica  Magna  (Czech  and  Latin),  (2) 
Janua  Linguarum  Reserata,  (3)  Orbis  Sensualium  Pic- 
tus.  The  third  is  mainly  the  second,  illustrated. 

With  Comenius,  the  cause  of  truth  and  freedom  in 
education  was  virtually  won.  Authority  and  tyranny 
had  yielded  to  truth  and  sympathy.  It  was  long,  indeed, 
before  the  fruits  of  his  victory  were  gathered.  Protes- 
tantism, after  its  first  enthusiasm  of  negation  was  over, 
more  and  more  belied  its  own  first  principle,  and  bowed 
down  before  authority.  The  schools  still  remained  al- 
most exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy.  Comenius 
was  almost  forgotten  till  the  present  century.  In  spite 
of  this,  his  influence  never  died  out,  but  continued  to 
inspire  the  later  reformers  of  education.  Locke,  Kous- 
seau,  Pestalozzi,  and  Frcebel,  some  of  whom  seem  never 
to  have  heard  of  him,  are,  nevertheless,  his  pupils  and 
continuators.  Comenius  is,  emphatically,  one  of  the 
Great  Educators. 

The  movement  away  from  authority  and  toward  free- 
dom, which  found  expression  in  the  experimental  science 
of  Bacon  and  the  pedagogy  of  Comenius,  made  itself  felt 
in  all  the  departments  of  human  life,  especially  in  re- 
ligion and  politics.  In  religion,  it  produced  the  Eefor- 
mation;  in  politics,  that  persistent  tendency  to  ignore 
the  divine  right  of  kings,  and  to  place  the  seat  of  author- 
ity in  the  people,  which,  beginning  about  1600,  has  ever 
since  been  growing.  English  Puritanism  and  the  Scotch 

*  Like  Prospero,  in  Shakespeare's  Tempest. 


FIFTEENTH   TO   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURIES      197 

Covenant  were  essentially  democratic,  though  theocratic. 
They  accepted  God  as  ruler,  indeed,  but  denied  that  he 
had  any  special  vicegerent  on  earth.  They  used  theoc- 
racy to  shake  off  monarchy,  and  then  dropped  theocracy. 
The  same  thing  took  place  among  the  Dutch.  All  this 
found  practical  expression  in  the  two  English  revolu- 
tions (1649,  1688),  and  in  the  settlement  of  New  Eng- 
land, which  meant  so  many  victories  for  freedom. 

But  it  was  a  considerable  time  before  the  movement 
became  sufficiently  conscious  of  its  own  meaning  and 
presuppositions  to  give  them  conscious  expression  in  a 
philosophy;  and  until  this  is  done,  no  movement  can 
display  its  whole  strength  or  proceed  securely.  The 
Keformation,  indeed,  was  so  little  aware  of  its  own  im- 
plications, that  it  remained  for  nearly  a  century  and  a 
half  without  a  philosophy.  At  last,  however,  it  formed 
this  also,  thanks  to  Eene  Descartes  (1596-1650)  and 
John  Locke  (1632-1704).  Widely  different  as  these  two 
men  were,  in  race,  education,  and  character,  they  agreed 
in  looking  for  the  guarantee  of  all  truth  in  some  form 
of  experience,  thus  virtually  placing  the  seat  of  all  au- 
thority in  the  human  breast — the  very  essence  of  Protes- 
tantism! The  universal  doubt,  which  Descartes  cher- 
ished with  regard  to  all  external  criteria  of  truth,  he 
removed  by  reference  to  internal  consciousness.  "I 
think,  therefore  I  am" — thought  and  being  are  one.* 
Locke  practically  said  "  Feeling  and  being  are  one."  f 
Neither  clearly  saw  all  the  implications  of  his  own  prin- 
ciple; but  they  came  out  later.  All  subsequent  philoso- 
phy is  built  upon  their  foundations.  Descartes,  with 

*  Cf.  Parmenides,  Tb  yap  avrb  voelv  eo-TtV  re  Koi  elvai. 

t  His  follower,  Cabanis  (1757-1808),  said  "  Vivre  c'est  sentir." 


198  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

his  Jesuit  education,  allowed  himself  to  be  drawn  back 
into  a  new  dogmatism,  and  so  undid  much  of  his  own 
good  work.  He  managed  to  pass  from  his  own  being  to 
that  of  God,  and  then,  on  the  basis  of  God's  assumed 
truthfulness,  to  believe  in  the  reality  of  the  world — a 
distinct  return  to  faith  and  authority.  But  he  did  most 
excellent  service  (1)  in  separating  the  world  of  thought 
from  the  world  of  extension,*  and  thereby  banishing 
metaphysical  entities — angels,  intelligences,  etc. — from 
the  explanation  of  the  phenomenal  universe;  and  (2)  also 
(by  the  resuscitation  of  the  atomic  doctrine  of  Democri- 
tus)  in  introducing  mathematics  into  chemistry.  Locke, 
with  his  sober  protestant  education,  was  less  ambitious 
for  absolute  truth,  being  content  to  remain  within  the 
limits  of  experience.  Descartes'  philosophy  naturally 
worked  itself  out  into  the  pantheistic  mysticism  of 
Spinoza  and  the  formal,  metaphysical  dogmatism  of  Wolf 
— barren  enough  results,  both  of  them.  That  of  Locke, 
after  passing  through  the  hands  of  Berkeley  and  Hume, 
woke  Kant  from  his  "  dogmatic  slumber,"  and  made  fur- 
ther progress  possible.  Thus,  Locke  may  be  said  to  be 
the  father  of  modern  thought,  which  rests  on  experience. 
Both  Descartes  and  Locke  contributed  to  the  cause  of 
education,  the  former  indirectly,  the  latter  directly. 
Animated  by  the  modern  spirit,  and  distrustful  of  the 
literary,  backward-looking  education  of  the  Jesuits, 
Descartes  demanded  that  the  mind  should  be  trained  to 
think,  and  to  deal  with  facts,  not  merely  with  words  and 
authorities.  He  deprecated  the  prolonged  study  of  the 
classical  languages.  In  the  first  section  of  his  earliest 
work,  the  Discourse  on  Method,  he  gives  many  valuable 

*  In  doing  this,  he  was,  of  course,  entirely  wrong ;  but  his  error  did 
good  service  for  a  time. 


FIFTEENTH   TO   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURIES      199 

hints  as  to  the  mode  of  imparting  information.  He  lays 
down  the  following  rules  for  himself:  (1)  never  to  ac- 
cept as  true  what  is  not  recognized  as  such  so  clearly  and 
distinctly  as  to  leave  no  room  for  doubt;  (2)  to  break  up 
every  difficult  problem,  as  far  as  possible,  into  its  parts; 
(3)  to  think  in  an  orderly  manner,  proceeding  from  the 
simpler  and  easier,  step  by  step,  to  the  more  complex 
and  difficult,  even  in  cases  where  a  special  order  is  not 
prescribed  by  the  nature  of  the  subject,  but  is  adopted 
for  the  sake  of  ordered  progress  in  investigation;  (4)  by 
completeness  of  enumeration,  and  universality  of  survey, 
to  make  sure  that  nothing  is  overlooked. 

Locke's  *  direct  contribution  to  education  is  contained 
in  his  little  work,  Some  Thoughts  concerning  Education 
(1693),  based  partly  on  actual  experience  in  teaching,  and 
partly  on  current  prejudices.  It  is  not  a  treatise  on  edu- 
cation generally,  but  on  how  to  "breed"  an  English 
gentleman  of  a  somewhat  formal  and  philistine  sort.  Its 
motto  is  "  A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body."  Beginning 
with  the  latter,  it  lays  down  rules  for  exercise  and  hy- 
giene, which  are  summed  up  thus:  "  Plenty  of  open  air, 
exercise  and  sleep;  plain  diet,  no  wine  or  strong  drink, 
and  very  little  or  no  physic;  not  too  warm  and  strait 
clothing;  especially  the  head  and  feet  kept  cold,  and  the 
feet  often  used  to  cold  water  and  exposed  to  wet."  f 

*  John  Locke,  born  at  Wrington,  near  Bristol  (1632) ;  studied  at  West- 
minster school,  then  at  Oxford  (1 651  sqq. ) ;  gave  attention  to  natural 
science,  and  the  works  of  William  of  Occam  and  Descartes  ;  accompanied 
Sir  Walter  Vane  to  the  court  of  Brandenburg  (1665)  ;  became  physician 
and  friend  in  the  house  of  Lord  Ashley,  later  Earl  of  Shaf  tesbury  (1667)  ; 
travelled  with  the  Earl  of  Northumberland  in  France  and  Italy  (1668)  ; 
received  a  government  office  (1672)  ;  lived  in  southern  France  (1675- 
1679)  ;  in  England  (1679-1683)  ;  with  the  Earl  of  Pembroke  in  Holland 
(1683-1688);  published  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding  (1690); 
spent  his  last  years  in  the  house  of  Sir  Francis  Masham  ;  died  there,  at 
the  age  of  73,  in  1704. 

t§30. 


200  THE  HI8TOEY  OP  EDUCATION 

Passing  on  to  the  mind,  it  recommends  for  it  a  like 
hardening  process.  "As  the  strength  of  the  body  lies 
chiefly  in  being  able  to  endure"  hardships,  so  also  does 
that  of  the  mind.  And  the  great  principle  and  founda- 
tion of  all  virtue  and  worth  is  placed  in  this,  that  a  man 
is  able  to  deny  himself  his  own  desires,  cross  his  own 
inclinations,  and  purely  follow  what  reason  directs  as 
best,  though  the  appetite  lean  the  other  way."  *  With 
a  view  to  this,  discipline  must  be  begun  early,  and  paren- 
tal authority  be  firmly  established.  Punishments  should 
be  as  light  as  possible;  flogging  and  beating  should  be 
used  only  in  the  extreme  case  of  conscious  obstinacy; 
but  then  they  should  be  continued  until  the  child  com- 
pletely yields.  Eewards  and  decorations  are  discouraged, 
the  proper  motives  to  moral  conduct  being  love  of  repu- 
tation, and  praise  and  fear  of  the  opposite — questionable 
enough  motives,  surely!  Children  should  be  allowed  to 
be  gamesome,  and  burdened  with  few  rules,  example 
being  more  powerful  than  precept.  "  Everyone's  natural 
genius  should  be  carried  as  far  as  it  could;  but  to  attempt 
the  putting  another  upon  him,  will  be  but  labor  in  vain; 
and  what  is  so  plastered  on  will  at  best  sit  but  untowardly, 
and  have  always  hanging  to  it  the  ungracefulness  of 
constraint  and  affectation."!  Children  should  not  be 
troubled  greatly  with  mere  formal  manners,  which  should 
be  imparted  rather  by  example  than  by  rule.  The  impor- 
tant thing  is  to  cultivate  the  right  disposition,  and  then 
leave  it  to  find  its  natural  expression.  "  Never  trouble 
yourself  about  those  faults  in  them  which  you  know  age 
will  cure."  J  Children  should  have  all  possible  liberty,  and 
yet  should  be  carefully  shielded  from  bad  company,  ser- 


FIFTEENTH  TO  SEVENTEENTH  CENTUEIES     201 

vants,  bad  boys,  etc.  Hence  it  is  better  that  they  should 
be  instructed  at  home  by  a  tutor  than  sent  away  to  school 
among  rude  boys.  "  None  of  the  things  they  are  to  learn 
should  ever  be  made  a  burden  to  them,  or  imposed  upon 
them  as  a  task.'*  *  Learning  should  be  like  play,  f  Chil- 
dren love  freedom,  and,  hence,  should  not  be  subjected 
to  compulsion,  or  forced  to  do  things  when  they  are  dis- 
inclined. They  should  be  reasoned  with  and  not  scolded. 
A  knowledge  of  the  world,  of  men,  and  of  their  foibles 
is  better  than  a  knowledge  of  books.  Hence,  the  tutor 
should  be  a  gentleman,  and  a  man  of  the  world,  rather 
than  a  scholar.  "For  who  expects  that  under  a  tutor 
a  young  gentleman  should  be  an  accomplished  critic, 
orator,  or  logician,  go  to  the  bottom  of  metaphysics, 
philosophy,  or  mathematics;  or  be  a  master  in  history 
or  chronology?  though  something  of  each  of  these  is  to 
be  taught  him.  .  .  .  But  of  good  breeding,  knowl- 
edge of  the  world,  virtue,  industry,  and  a  love  of  repu- 
tation, he  cannot  have  too  much.  And,  if  he  have  these, 
he  will  not  long  want  what  he  needs  or  desires  of  the 
other."  I  Parents  should  make  every  effort  to  gain  and 
keep  the  confidence  of  their  children,  and  to  prove  their 
best  friends,  at  the  same  time  sternly  putting  down  ob- 
stinacy, lying,  ill-nature,  and  love  of  dominion.  Every 
effort  should  be  made  to  satisfy  children's  curiosity,  and 
to  make  them  vain  of  their  acquirements.  ||  They  should 
be  taught  to  be  deferential  to  each  other,  and  to  be  just 
and  generous.  The  generous  child  should  not  be  al- 

*§73. 

t  Aristotle  said,  more  wisely :  "  Education  ought  certainly  not  to  be 
turned  into  a  means  of  amusement ;  for  young  people  are  not  playing 
when  they  are  learning,  since  all  learning  is  accompanied  with  pain. 

J  §  94.  |  §§  108,  109. 


202  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

lowed  to  be  the  loser  by  his  generosity.  "  Let  all  the 
instances  he  gives  of  such  freeness  be  always  repaid,  and 
with  interest,  and  let  him  sensibly  perceive  that  the  kind- 
ness he  shows  to  others  is  no  ill  husbandry  for  him- 
self. "*  Crying  should  not  be  permitted,  and,  while  fool- 
hardiness  should  be  tamed,  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  cultivate  courage  and  hardiness.  Undesirable  tastes 
should  be  cured  by  surfeiting,  rather  than  by  curbing. 
Games  and  play  should  be  encouraged;  but  very  few 
playthings  should  be  given,  except  those  which  the  chil- 
dren themselves  manufacture.  When  children  do  wrong 
and  confess,  they  should  be  pardoned  and  commended. 

The  aims  of  education  are  Virtue,  Wisdom,  Breeding, 
Learning.  The  foundation  of  Virtue  is  "  a  true  notion 
of  God,  as  of  the  independent  Supreme  Being,  Author 
and  Maker  of  all  things,  from  whom  we  receive  all  good, 
who  loves  us  and  gives  us  all  things,"  f  coupled  with  a 
love  of  truth.  "  Wisdom  I  take,  in  the  popular  accepta- 
tion, for  a  man's  managing  his  business  ably,  and  with 
foresight,  in  this  world."  J  The  fundamental  principle 
of  Good  Breeding  is  "  Not  to  think  meanly  of  ourselves, 
and  not  to  think  meanly  of  others."  ||  Among  the  aims 
of  education,  Learning  is  last  in  importance.  "  Children 
may  be  cozened  into  a  knowledge  of  the  letters;  be 
taught  to  read  without  perceiving  it  to  be  anything  but 
a  sport,  and  play  themselves  into  what  others  are  whipped 
for.  Children  should  not  have  anything  like  work,  or 
serious,  laid  on  them. "  ^  "  Cheer  him  [the  child]  into 
it  [reading]  if  you  can;  but  make  it  not  a  business  for 
him."  **  When  he  can  read,  he  should  take  up  .^Esop's 
Fables  (with  pictures),  the  Paternoster,  Creed,  and 

*§UO,  3.         t§136.         J§140.         II  §141.        !§149.         **§155. 


FIFTEENTH   TO   SEVENTEENTH   CENTUEIES      203 

Decalogue.  The  Bible,  as  a  whole,  is  not  a  good  text- 
book; but  parts  of  it  may  be  so  used.  After  reading,  come 
writing  and  drawing.  Even  shorthand  may  be  acquired. 
Then  come  languages,  of  which  the  most  important  are 
French  and  Latin,  both  of  which  ought  to  be  learnt  in 
the  natural  way,  by  conversation.  English  ought  not  to 
be  neglected.  "Latin  I  look  upon  as  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  a  gentleman,"  *  says  Locke,  and  to  a  gentleman 
alone.  Grammar  should  be  taught  only  to  those  who 
desire  a  critical  knowledge  of  a  language,  or  who  have 
officially  to  write  in  it.  Along  with  languages  should  be 
learnt  the  sciences — geography,  astronomy,  arithmetic, 
chronology,  anatomy,  history,  geometry,  botany,  geology, 
etc.  These  are  better  than  abstract  logic  and  meta- 
physics. Latin  themes,  declamations,  and  verses  are  for- 
bidden, and  any  tendency  toward  poetry  ought  to  be 
sternly  repressed.  "It  is  to  me  the  strangest  thing  in  the 
world,  that  the  father  should  desire  or  suffer  it  to  be  cher- 
ished or  improved.  Methinks  the  parents  should  labor  to 
have  it  stifled  and  suppressed  as  much  as  may  be;  .  .  . 
for  it  is  very  seldom  seen  that  anyone  discovers  mines  of 
gold  or  silver  in  Parnassus.  It  is  a  pleasant  air,  but  a 
barren  soil;  and  there  are  very  few  instances  of  those 
who  have  added  to  their  patrimony  by  anything  they 
have  reaped  from  thence.  Poetry  and  gaming,  which 
usually  go  together,  are  alike  in  this  too,  that  they  sel- 
dom bring  any  advantage  but  to  those  that  have  nothing 
else  to  live  on.  Men  of  estates  almost  constantly  go  away 
losers."  f  Ethics  should  be  studied  in  the  Bible  and  in 
"  Tally's  Offices  "  (Cicero,  De  Officiis);  Civil  Law,  which 
in  connection  with  history,  is  most  useful,  in  Puffendorf 

*  §  164.  t  §  174. 


204  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

and  Grotius.  "A  virtuous,  well-behaved  young  man 
that  is  well  versed  in  the  general  part  of  the  civil  law 
.  .  .  understands  Latin  well,  and  can  write  a  good 
hand,  one  may  turn  loose  into  the  world,  with  great  as- 
surance that  he  will  find  employment  and  esteem  every- 
where." * 

Though  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  logic  are  held  of  small 
account,  yet  "  there  can  be  no  greater  defect  in  a  gen- 
tleman than  not  to  express  himself  well,  either  in  writing 
or  speaking."  f  Especial  attention  should  be  paid  to 
letter-writing  in  English.  "Natural  philosophy,  as  a 
speculative  science,  I  imagine,  we  have  none,  and  per- 
haps I  may  think  I  have  reason  to  say,  we  shall  never 
be  able  to  make  a  science  of  it.  The  works  of  nature 
are  contrived  by  a  wisdom,  and  operate  by  ways,  too  far 
surpassing  our  faculties  to  discover,  or  capacities  to  con- 
ceive, for  us  ever  to  be  able  to  reduce  them  into  a  science. 
Natural  philosophy  being  the  knowledge  of  principles, 
properties,  and  operations  of  things  as  they  are  in  them- 
selves, I  imagine  there  are  two  parts  of  it,  one  compre- 
hending spirits,  with  their  nature  and  qualities,  and  the 
other  bodies.  The  first  of  these  is  usually  referred  to 
metaphysics;  but  under  what  title  soever  the  considera- 
tion of  spirits  comes,  I  think  it  ought  to  go  before  the 
study  of  matter  and  body,  not  as  a  science  that  can  be 
methodized  into  a  system,  and  treated  of,  upon  principles 
of  knowledge;  but  as  an  enlargement  of  our  minds 
towards  a  truer  and  fuller  comprehension  of  the  intel- 
lectual world,  to  which  we  are  led  both  by  reason  and 
revelation.  And  since  the  clearest  and  largest  discoveries 
we  have  of  other  spirits,  besides  God  and  our  own  souls, 
*  §  186.  t  §  isa 


FIFTEENTH   TO   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURIES      205 

are  imparted  to  us  from  heaven  by  revelation,  I  think  thti 
information,  that  at  least  young  people  should  have  of 
them,  should  be  taken  from  revelation.  To  this  end, 
I  conclude,  it  would  be  well,  if  there  were  made  a  good 
history  of  the  Bible  for  young  people  to  read  .  .  . 
that  by  reading  of  it  constantly,  there  would  be  instilled 
into  the  minds  of  children  a  notion  and  belief  of  spirits, 
they  having  so  much  to  do,  in  all  the  transactions  of 
that  history,  which  will  be  a  good  preparation  for  the 
study  of  bodies.  For,  without  the  notion  and  allowance 
of  spirit,  our  philosophy  will  be  lame  and  defective  in 
one  main  part  of  it,  when  it  leaves  out  the  contemplation 
of  the  most  excellent  and  powerful  part  of  the  crea- 
tion." *  ..."  The  reason  why  I  would  have  this 
premised  to  the  study  of  bodies,  and  the  doctrine  of  the 
Scriptures  well  imbibed,  before  young  men  be  entered 
in  natural  philosophy,  is,  because  matter  being  a  thing 
that  all  our  senses  are  constantly  conversant  with,  it  is 
so  apt  to  possess  the  mind,  and  exclude  all  other  beings 
but  matter,  that  prejudice,  grounded  on  such  principles, 
often  leaves  no  room  for  the  admittance  of  spirits,  or 
the  allowing  of  any  such  things  as  immaterial  beings, 
1  in  rerum  natura ';  when  yet  it  is  evident,  that  by  mere 
matter  and  motion,  none  of  the  great  phenomena  of  nat- 
ure can  be  resolved;  to  instance  but  in  that  common 
one  of  gravity,  which  I  think  impossible  to  be  explained 
by  any  natural  operation  of  matter,  or  any  other  law  of 
motion,  but  the  positive  will  of  a  superior  Being  so  or- 
dering it."  f  Despite  this,  it  is  well  for  "  gentlemen  " 
to  know  something  of  natural  philosophy.  "  Such  writ- 
ings ...  as  many  of  Mr.  Boyle's  are,  with  others 

*  §  190.     Some  of  this  is  directed  against  Descartes.  t  §  192. 


206  THE   HISTOEY   OF   EDUCATION 

that  have  writ  -of  husbandry,  planting,  gardening,  and 
the  like,  may  be  fit  for  a  gentleman,  when  he  has  a 
little  acquainted  himself  with  some  of  the  systems  of 
natural  philosophy  in  fashion."  *  The  works  of  "  the 
incomparable  Mr.  Newton"  are  especially  deserving  of 
study. 

Greek,  like  all  languages,  is  valuable,  but  should  not 
be  studied  until  men  have  reached  maturity.  Dancing 
(not  jigs!)  should  be  learnt  early;  and  fencing  and  rid- 
ing, though  dangerous,  are  desirable;  but  music  is  of 
small  account.  "It  wastes  so  much  of  a  young  man's 
time  to  gain  but  a  moderate  skill  in  it,  and  engages  often 
in  such  odd  company,  that  many  think  it  much  better 
spared:  and  I  have,  amongst  men  of  parts  and  business, 
so  seldom  heard  anyone  commended  or  esteemed  for  hav- 
ing an  excellency  in  music,  that  amongst  all  those  things 
that  ever  came  into  the  list  of  accomplishments,  I  think 
I  may  give  it  the  last  place."  f 

With  regard  to  recreation  Locke  has  some  fresh  views. 
Being  no  great  friend  of  unproductive  amusements,  and 
a  distinct  enemy  of  gambling  (cards  and  dice),  he  advises 
every  gentleman  desiring  serious  recreation  to  learn  a 
trade  or  craft.  Painting  would  be  good;  but  it  is  too 
sedentary.  Better  are  gardening,  husbandry,  and  car- 
pentry, and  there  is  no  objection  to  "  perfuming,  varnish- 
ing, graining,  and  several  sorts  of  working  in  iron,  brass 
and  silver;  and  if,  as  it  happens  to  most  young  gentle- 
men, that  a  considerable  part  of  his  time  be  spent  in  a 
great  town,  he  may  learn  to  cut,  polish,  and  set  precious 
stones,  or  employ  himself  in  grinding  and  polishing  op- 
tical glasses."  I  Bookkeeping  should  be  learnt  by  every 

*  §  193.  t  §  197.  J  §  209. 


FIFTEENTH   TO   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURIES      207 

gentleman,  in  order  that  he  may  look  after  his  own  ac- 
counts. Foreign  travel  is  recommended,  but  not  at  the 
age  (from  sixteen  to  twenty-one)  at  which  it  is  usually 
undertaken.  It  should  come  either  earlier  or  later,  not 
at  the  most  critical  period  in  a  young  man's  life. 

Such  is  a  brief  summary  of  Locke's  rather  unsystematic 
work  on  the  breeding  of  an  English  gentleman.  Like 
everything  that  Locke  wrote,  it  is  marked  by  prosaic 
common  sense  and  contented  worldliness.  He  has  little 
interest  in  art,  science,  or  philosophy,  or  in  what  they 
may  do  for  a  man.  He  aims  at  discipline,  not  instruc- 
tion. He  would  impart  as  much  instruction  in  accepted 
truth  as  is  necessary  for  good  breeding;  but  he  would 
make  no  effort  to  rouse  original  thought  or  induce  young 
men  to  strike  out  new  paths  for  themselves.  He  has  no 
sense  of  true  morality,  or  of  the  "  glorious  freedom  " 
that  goes  with  it.  His  ethical  motive,  "love  of  praise 
and  commendation,"  which  he  says  "  should  be  instilled 
by  all  arts  imaginable,"  *  is  essentially  immoral,  and 
could  produce  nothing  but  vain  prigs  and  conceited 
philistines.  He  makes  no  effort  to  arouse  a  sense  of 
duty,  or  to  use  it  as  a  spring  of  action.  He  would  de- 
liver men  from  slavery  to  passion  by  making  them  slaves 
to  their  social  environment.  He  has  no  conception  of 
the  methods  and  aims  of  physical  science,  and  would 
still  have  us  look  for  an  explanation  of  the  world  to 
"spirits,"  best  known  to  us  through  revelation.  Thus 
science  is  still  the  handmaid  of  theology,  and  the  door 
is  left  wide  open  for  all  kinds  of  superstition — possession, 
witchcraft,  etc.  He  is  what  would  to-day  be  called  an 
"agnostic,"  endeavoring  to  hide  his  agnosticism  under 
*  §  201. 


208  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

superstition.*  In  the  higher  regions  of  thought,  his 
point  of  view  does  not  essentially  differ  from  that  of  the 
Jesuits.  In  education  he  replaces  the  authority  of  God 
by  the  authority  of  polite  society,  the  clergy  by  the  landed 
gentry.  The  unsatisfactoriness  of  his  philosophy  will 
become  clear  when  it  passes  into  the  hands  of  Berkeley 
and  Hume;  that  of  his  educational  system,  when  it  comes 
to  be  interpreted  by  Rousseau.  Locke  was  the  father  of 
modern  scepticism,  and  its  correlate,  modern  anarchism, 
best  expressed  in  the  French  Revolution.  Through  these 
the  world  had  to  pass,  before  it  reached  the  ground  of 
science  and  of  free  government. 

Apart  from  the  contributions  of  Descartes  and  Locke, 
the  seventeenth  century  did  little  for  education.  Other 
interests,  social  and  religious,  were  more  absorbing.  The 
efforts  of  Fenelon,  with  his  work  on  the  Education  of 
Girls,  of  Madame  de  Sevigne,  Madame  de  Maintenon, 
Rollin  and  others,  did  something  to  humanize  education; 
but  they  all  left  the  old  foundation  untouched,  and  rose 
to  no  new  principle.  The  work  of  the  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools  has  already  been  referred  to. 

*  He  thinks  that  Noah's  flood  may  have  been  due  to  God's  altering  the 
position  of  the  earth's  centre  of  gravity. 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY 

The  Englishman  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  greatly  addicted 
to  agriculture  as  a  business  or  a  pleasure,  or  both.  It  was  the 
"  reigning  task  "  of  the  age. — THOROLD  KOGERS,  Six  Centuries  of 
Work  and  Wages,  p.  469. 

Thou  hast  destroyed  it,  Of  the  sons  of  earth, 

The  beautiful  world,  More  gloriously 

With  mighty  fist.  Build  it  again, 

It  sinks,  it  sunders.  In  the  bosom  build  it  up  1 

A  demigod  hath  shivered  it.  New  life-career 

We  carry  Begin, 

The  ruins  over  into  naught,  With  clear  sense, 

And  wail  over  the  lost  beauty.  And  let  new  songs 

Mighty  one  King  over  it. 

— GOTHE,  Faust,  Pt.  I. 

It  is  worth  while  to  know  Social  Philosophy,  because,  until  we 
know  that,  we  do  not  know  what  else  it  is  worth  while  to  know.— 
MACKENZIE,  Social  Philosophy. 

When  the  seventeenth  century  closed,  the  Reformation 
and  the  Renaissance,  the  discovery  of  the  Copernican 
astronomy  and  of  America,  the  philosophies  of  Bacon, 
Hobbes,  Descartes  and  Locke,  and  the  English  revolu- 
tions of  1649  and  1688  had  separated  mediaeval  from 
modern  times  by  a  gulf  which  even  imagination  could 
hardly  bridge.  In  all  the  spheres  of  life,  authority  was 
giving  place  to  truth  and  to  the  freedom  that  comes  of 
truth.  The  spirit  of  national  and  sectarian  exclusive- 

209 


210  THE  HISTOEY   OF  EDUCATION 

ness  was  giving  way  to  the  spirit  of  humanity  and  free 
inquiry.  Education  was  showing  the  effect  of  all  this. 
It  was  slowly  extending  to  all  classes  of  society,  and 
passing  from  the  hands  of  the  clergy  to  the  those  of  the 
laity.  The  use  of  Latin  was  being  replaced  by  that  of 
living  languages.  The  study  of  nature  and  of  modern 
culture  was  receiving  more  and  more  attention.  Men 
were  being  taught  to  live  in  the  present  and  not  in  the 
past.  With  all  this,  however,  the  spirit  that  stirred  in 
the  great  movements  of  the  two  preceding  centuries  had 
not  yet  received  complete  expression.  The  Eeformation 
and  the  Renaissance  had  belied  their  own  principles  and 
found  a  place,  beside  truth  and  nature,  for  authority  and 
supernatnre.  The  philosophies  which  were  meant  to 
give  expression  to  the  new  spirit  made  truces  with  the- 
osophy  and  intolerance.  Even  the  judicious,  large- 
minded  Locke  refused  freedom  of  thought  to  atheists, 
while  Descartes  was  too  timid  to  accept  the  Copernican 
astronomy.  The  English  revolutions  still  left  England 
with  kings  "  by  the  grace  of  God." 

For  all  that,  the  forward  movement  was  not  checked, 
and  the  attempt  to  check  it  only  brought  revolution 
and  destruction.  The  Eeformation  and  the  Renaissance 
found  almost  complete  expression,  respectively,  in  Vol- 
taire and  Rousseau;  the  philosophy  of  Locke  in  the  ab- 
solute scepticism  of  Hume,  which  left  not  one  stone  upon 
another  of  the  whole  mediaeval  world  of  things  or 
thought;  the  English  revolutionary  spirit,  in  the  Amer- 
ican and  French  revolutions.  In  all  these  expressions 
the  uncertain  purpose  and  vacillating  methods  of  the 
movement  became  clearly  apparent.  It  had  not  yet 
learnt  its  own  meaning. 


THE   EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  211 

In  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  no  marked 
advance  in  education  took  place.  It  was  a  time  of  omi- 
nous calm,  foreboding  a  storm.  This  calm  was  rudely 
broken  in  1750,  by  the  appearance  of  Eousseau*  in  the 
field  of  literature,  with  a  bitter  polemic  against  civiliza- 
tion and  the  demand  that  men  should  return  to  a  "  state 
of  nature."  Being  himself  a  sensuous,  indolent,  and 
undisciplined  creature,  impatient  of  all  moral  restraint, 
he  set  out  to  construct  a  world  which  should  justify  his 
own  existence  and  allow  him  to  flatter  himself,  as  he 
did,  that  he  was  one  of  the  best  of  men.  This  is  the  true 
source  of  all  his  political  and  educational  theories,  and 
the  secret  of  their  wide  influence.  In  the  middle  of  last 
century,  the  repressive  supernatural  education  of  the 
Jesuits  and  Calvinists,  which  had  not  kept  pace  with 
advancing  thought  toward  Eeason  and  Nature,  produced, 
in  favor  of  freedom,  a  strong  reaction,  which,  in  its  early 
stages,  was,  naturally,  exaggerated  and  reckless.  At  last, 


*  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  born  at  Geneva  (1712) ;  loses  his  mother  at 
his  birth ;  is  kept  at  home  and  reads  a  whole  library  of  sentimental 
novels  before  the  age  of  seven ;  goes  to  school  at  Boissey  (1720) ;  appren- 
ticed to  a  notary,  then  to  an  engraver  (1723)  ;  runs  away,  becomes  a 
Catholic,  and  is  sent  to  Turin  for  religious  instruction  (1726)  ;  returns  to 
Chambery  (1729),  and  resides  with  the  frivolous  Madame  de  Warens ; 
is  deserted  by  her  for  a  time,  returns  to  her  (1732)  and  remains  till  1741, 
reading  science  and  philosophy  in  a  desultory  way,  goes  to  Paris  (1741), 
tries  his  fortune  as  a  composer ;  takes  Therese  Levasseur  to  live  with 
him  (1744) ;  sends  his  children  to  the  foundling  asylum ;  writes  his  essay 
on  the  moral  effect  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  (1750)  ;  that  on  Inequal- 
ity among  Men  (1753) ;  returns  to  Geneva  and  protestantism  (1754) ; 
settles  at  the  Hermitage  near  Montmorency  (1756)  ;  leaves  this  and  takes 
a  cottage  near  by ;  writes  the  New  Heloise  (1759),  the  Social  Contract 
and  Emile  (1762)  ;  is  bitterly  persecuted,  and  flees  to  Switzerland  fl762) ; 
thence  with  David  Hume  to  England  (1766)  ;  returns  to  France  (1767) ; 
wanders  about  with  Therese  for  three  years ;  settles  down  in  Paris  in 
humble  fashion  (1770) ;  becomes  morbid  and  unhappy ;  writes  Dialogues 
and  Reveries  ;  goes  to  recruit  at  Ermenonville  (May  1778)  ;  dies  July  2d 
of  the  same  year  ;  his  body  removed  to  the  Pantheon  in  Paris,  October 
11,  1793.  See  my  Rousseau  ~  and  Education  according  to  Nature,  in  the 
"  Great  Educator"  series  (Scribner'a  1898). 


212  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

Nature  found  a  voice  in  Eousseau,  as  Eeason  did  in  Vol- 
taire.   Both  were  opposed  to  Eevelation. 

Man,  in  his  upward  progress,  emancipated  himself 
from  slavery  to  nature,  by  submitting  himself  to  human 
institutions;  and  he  bids  fair,  by  making  these  the  ex- 
pression of  his  own  social  nature,  to  emancipate  himself 
from  them  also,  and  thus  be  entirely  free.  Kousseau, 
not  seeing  this,  and  not  recognizing  bondage  to  nature 
as  slavery  at  all,  called  upon  men  to  throw  aside  institu- 
tions, as  having  only  a  corrupting,  distorting  influence, 
and  return  to  the  state  of  the  unsocial  savage.  This  is 
the  burden  of  his  three  political  essays,  especially  of  the 
Social  Contract,  which  opens  with  "Man  is  born  free, 
and  is  everywhere  in  chains."  His  educational  writings, 
of  which  the  chief  is  Emile,  are  meant  to  furnish  the 
program  of  unsocial  education,  of  which  he  found  an 
embodiment  in  Robinson  Crusoe.*  He  draws  a  good  deal 
of  his  material  from  Montaigne  and  Locke,  especially 
from  the  latter,  whose  positions  frequently  show  their 
essential  weakness  in  his  hands.  The  principles  by  means 
of  which  Locke  meant  to  maintain  a  stable  society,  and 
to  educate  men  for  it,  Eousseau  turned  into  instruments 
for  the  subversion  of  all  society  and  the  education  of  men 
for  the  life  of  savages.  Utterly  despising  Locke's  ethical 
sanction,  the  approval  of  society,  he  was  left  with  no 
sanction  at  all  but  the  brute  necessity  of  nature;  and, 
indeed,  this  was  the  only  one  to  which  he  appealed. 
Nature,  which,  as  usually  understood,  is  but  another 
name  for  necessity,!  plays  a  most  important  and  funda- 

*  He  does  not  seem  to  have  known  Ibn  Tufail's  Hayy  ibn  Tokdhan 
(twelfth  century),  long  such  a  favorite  with  the  Quakers,  and  much 
more  to  his  purpose. 

t  It  was  the  notion  of  necessity  (ivdyoj,  /xoipa,  alo-a,  etc. )  that  developed 
into  that  of  nature  (<frv<r«)  in  Greece. 


THE  EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY  213 

mental  part  in  education,  and  Kousseau  does  excellent 
work,  so  long  as  he  champions  it  in  its  own  sphere;  but 
he  is  most  pernicious,  when  he  claims  the  whole  of  edu- 
cation for  it.  When  he  follows  Locke,  in  demanding  for 
children  freedom,  exercise,  fresh  air,  etc.,  we  can  com- 
pletely sympathize  with  him;  but,  when  he  makes 
Locke's  demand  that  children  should  be  placed  under  a 
tutor  at  home,  instead  of  being  sent  to  school,  mean  that 
they  should  be  separated  from  family  and  society,  and 
placed,  singly,  in  the  hands  of  a  tutor  who  on  all  occa- 
sions behaves  like  a  part  of  brute  nature,  he  is  dehu- 
manizing them,  and  making  impossible  the  growth  of 
any  social  or  moral  consciousness.  Locke,  while  highly 
recommending  moral  discipline,  as  the  indispensable  con- 
dition of  all  education,  had  most  unwisely  said  that  no 
tasks  should  be  imposed  upon  children,  and  that  they 
were  to  be  "  cozened,"  or  "  cheated  "  into  learning  even 
to  read.  Rousseau  extends  this  so  as  to  make  the  whole 
of  education  a  cheat.  His  Emile  is  to  be  cheated  and 
duped  at  every  step,  and  it  is  the  poorest  compliment  to 
his  education  that  this  is  possible.  The  motives  by  which 
he  is  led  are  all  of  the  selfish,  unsocial  sort,  and,  indeed, 
are  nearly  always  sensual.  Sensual  enjoyment,  Eousseau 
claims  to  be  true  living.  "  What/'  he  says,  "  are  we  to 
think  of  that  barbarous  education  which  sacrifices  the 
present  to  an  uncertain  future,  which  loads  the  child 
with  all  sorts  of  chains,  and  begins  by  rendering  it  mis- 
erable, in  order  to  prepare  it  for  some  distant,  pretended 
happiness,  which  it  will  probably  never  enjoy?  .  .  . 
Who  knows  how  many  children  perish,  victims  of  the 
extravagant  wisdom  of  a  father  or  a  teacher?  .  .  . 
Fathers,  do  you  know  the  moment  when  death  awaits 


214  THE  HISTOEY   OF   EDUCATION 

your  children?  ...  As  soon  as  they  are  able  to  feel 
the  pleasure  of  being,  see  that  they  enjoy  it;  take  care 
that  .  .  .  they  do  not  die  without  having  tasted  life. 
.  .  .  Miserable  foresight,  which  renders  a  being  un- 
happy in  the  present,  in  the  ill-founded  hope  of  making 
him  happy  in  the  future.  .  .  .  Everything  is  folly 
and  contradiction  in  human  institutions.  .  .  .  Fore- 
sight! foresight,  which  continually  carries  us  beyond  our- 
selves, and  often  places  us  where  we  shall  never  really 
arrive,  is  the  true  source  of  all  our  miseries.  What  folly 
for  an  ephemeral  being,  like  man,  to  be  looking  forever 
into  a  distant  future,  which  rarely  comes,  and  to  neglect 
the  present,  of  which  he  is  sure!  .  .  .  The  only  man 
who  does  his  will  is  he  who,  in  order  to  do  so,  has  no 
need  to  eke  out  his  own  arms  with  those  of  another; 
whence  it  follows  that  the  first  of  all  blessings  is  not  au- 
thority, ~but  liberty.  This  is  my  fundamental  maxim. 
We  have  but  to  apply  it  to  childhood,  and  all  the  rules  of 
education  will  flow  from  it."  * 

The  writer  may,  perhaps,  be  allowed  to  quote  here  a 
passage  from  his  own  Rousseau,  commenting  on  these 
sentiments:  "The  end  of  life  is  happiness,  and  happi- 
ness is  the  sensual  enjoyment  of  each  moment  as  it  passes, 
without  thought,  plan,  or  aspiration  for  higher  things, 
nay,  without  regard  to  others.  All  efforts  after  a  divine 
life  of  deep  insight,  strong,  just  affection,  and  far-reach- 
ing beneficent  will,  all  unions  among  men  for  the  reali- 
zation of  this  life,  in  and  through  society,  are  folly  and 
contradiction.  To  live  as  the  beast  lives,  in  his  appointed 
place,  is  the  chief  end  of  man.  Because  some  children 
die  before  they  reach  youth  or  manhood,  it  is  cruel  to 

*  Emile,  Bk.  H. 


THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY        215 

deprive  any,  through  discipline,  self-denying  continuous 
tasks,  or  thought  of  the  future,  of  the  manifold,  thought- 
less delights  of  the  present.  Discipline  and  self-control 
have  no  value  in  themselves;  at  best  they  are  but  means 
for  future  pleasure.  The  child  that  dies  without  having 
enjoyed  pleasure  has  not  '  tasted  of  life/  No  matter 
what  his  spiritual  attainments,  'or  the  beauty  and  nobility 
of  his  character,  his  existence  has  been  a  failure.  What- 
ever interferes  with  present  pleasure  is  evil. 

"It  would  hardly  be  possible  to  form  a  more  pitiful 
conception  of  human  life  and  education  than  this.  There 
is  not  a  moral  or  noble  trait  in  it.  The  truth  is,  Rous- 
seau was  so  purely  a  creature  of  sense  and  undisciplined 
impulse  that  he  never,  for  one  moment,  rose  to  a  con- 
sciousness of  moral  life  at  all."  * 

Indeed,  he  thought  moral  life  an  egregious  blunder. 
Speaking  of  his  Emile,  he  says:  "  Devoid  of  all  morality 
in  his  actions,  he  can  do  nothing  that  is  morally  evil,  or 
that  deserves  chastisement  or  reprimand."  He  had  small 
respect  even  for  intellectual  life.  "  Exercise,"  he  says, 
"  the  child's  body,  his  organs,  his  senses,  his  strength; 
but  keep  his  mind  indolent  as  long  as  possible.  .  .  . 
Look  upon  all  delays  as  advantages  ...  let  childhood 
ripen  in  children.  ...  If  a  lesson  has  to  be  given, 
do  not  give  it  to-day,  if  it  can  be  put  off  till  to-morrow." 

It  would  be  unprofitable  to  follow  Emile  through  the 
further  stages  of  his  anti-social  education.  It  is  all  of 
a  piece,  aiming  to  produce  a  docile  animal.  Indeed,  it 
is  just  such  an  education  as  a  high-bred  dog  might  re- 
ceive. He,  of  course,  learns  a  trade,  because  he  thus 
comes  to  be  able  to  use  his  hands,  and  so  to  be  inde- 

*  Davidson,  Rousseau,  pp.  118  seq. 


216  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

pendent  of  society;  but  he  avoids  all  intellectual  and 
social  culture.  "  Reading  is  the  curse  of  childhood,"  and 
"  since  our  errors  come  from  our  judgments,  it  is  clear 
that,  if  we  never  had  to  judge,  we  should  never  have  to 
learn,  and  never  be  liable  to  deceive  ourselves.  "We  should 
be  happier  in  our  ignorance  than  we  can  be  in  our 
knowledge." 

In  course  of  time,  Emile  is  ready  to  take  a  wife;  and 
a  suitable  one,  thanks  to  that  good  genius,  the  tutor,  is 
ready  for  him.  This  gives  Rousseau  an  opportunity  of 
stating  his  views  on  the  education  of  girls.  And  they 
are  such  as  we  might  expect.  "  Woman  is  made  to  please 
man.  .  .  .  Thus  all  the  education  of  women  must 
have  relation  to  men.  To  please  them,  to  be  useful  to 
them,  to  rear  them  when  they  are  young,  to  tend  them 
when  they  are  grown,  to  make  their  lives  pleasant  and 
sweet — these  are  the  duties  of  women  in  all  times,  and 
what  they  ought  to  learn  from  earliest  childhood.  .  .  . 
Woman  is  a  coquette  by  profession.  .  .  .  Girls  must 
be  wide-awake  and  laborious;  more  than  that,  they  must 
be  early  subjected  to  repression.  .  .  .  From  the  first 
they  must  be  exercised  in  constraint,  so  that  it  may  never 
cost  them  anything;  and  taught  to  overcome  all  their 
fancies,  in  order  to  subject  them  to  the  will  of  others. 

.  .  From  this  habitual  constraint  there  results  a 
docility,  which  women  have  need  of  all  their  lives,  since 
they  never  cease  to  be  subjected  either  to  a  man  or  to 
the  judgments  of  men,  without  ever  being  allowed  to  set 
themselves  above  these  judgments.  The  first  and  most 
important  attribute  of  a  woman  is  sweetness.  Being  made 
to  obey  an  imperfect  being  like  man,  often  so  full  of 
vices,  and  always  so  full  of  faults,  she  must  early  learn 


THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY  217 

to  submit  even  to  injustice,  and  to  bear  the  misdeeds  of 
a  husband  without  complaining.  .  .  .  She  must  never 
scold.  .  .  .  While  a  man  speaks  what  he  knows,  a 
woman  speaks  what  pleases.  .  .  .  We  ought  not,  there- 
fore, to  stop  the  chatter  of  girls.  .  .  .  They  must 
make  it  a  rule  never  to  say  anything  but  what  is  agree- 
able to  those  with  whom  they  talk."  And  so  on  for  many 
pages. 

Emile,  of  course,  falls  violently  in  love  with  Sophie, 
and,  in  due  time,  is  engaged  to  her.  Then  this  young 
man,  who  has  been  reared  as  a  mere  sensuous  animal,  is 
called  upon  to  behave,  all  at  once,  like  a  Stoic.  Before 
marrying,  he  is  commanded  by  his  inexorable  tutor  to 
thwart  nature  completely,  to  leave  Sophie,  and  travel 
for  two  years,  in  order  to  see  the  world,  and  find  a  fit 
place  to  settle  down  in.  The  parting  scene  shows  that 
Eousseau  had  no  sense  of  the  ludicrous.  Emile,  in  course 
of  time,  returns,  charged  with  Stoic  independence,  mar- 
ries Sophie,  and  is  blest  with  a  son.  On  the  birth  of  the 
latter,  Emile  says  to  his  tutor:  "  Eemain  the  master  of 
the  young  masters.  Advise  us,  govern  us:  we  will  be 
docile.  As  long  as  I  live,  I  shall  need  you.  I  have  more 
need  of  you  than  ever,  now  that  my  functions  as  a  man 
are  beginning."  It  would  hardly  be  possible  to  pass  a 
severer  judgment  than  this  upon  Emile's  education. 
Though  a  husband  and  father,  he  has  no  power  to  guide 
himself,  but  is  completely  dependent  upon  another.  Nor 
could  this  be  otherwise,  since,  though  duped  into  believ- 
ing that  he  has  always  been  guiding  himself,  he  has,  in 
reality,  been  a  mere  puppet  in  his  tutor's  hands. 

After  a  time,  the  tutor  leaves  his  wards,  and  then  all 
sorts  of  mischief  happen.  The  poor  creatures,  who  have 


218  THE  HISTORY   OP  EDUCATION 

been  living  in  the  quiet  retirement  of  the  country,  are 
induced  to  go  to  live  in  a  city,  to  mingle  with  men.  Here 
Emile  acquires  frivolous  tastes'  and  Sophie  falls  from 
virtue,  which  is  just  what  might  be  expected  from  such 
inexperienced  people.  After  various  vicissitudes,  Emile 
finds  his  way  to  a  lonely  island  (Eobinson  Crusoe's?), 
where,  to  his  surprise,  he  finds  Sophie  officiating  as  a 
priestess.  After  explanations,  a  reconciliation  takes  place, 
and  the  two,  having  seen  enough  of  society,  and  proved 
for  themselves  its  degrading  influence,  remain  on  their 
island,  as  "  solitaries,"  and — are  happy  ever  after! 

It  is,  perhaps,  unnecessary  to  pass  any  judgment  on  a 
scheme  of  education  of  which  this  is  the  outcome.  It 
judges  itself.  Indeed,  it  would  hardly  have  justified  the 
attention  here  given  to  it,  were  it  not  for  the  sensation 
which  its  glittering  paradoxes  and  sentimental  appeals 
caused,  and  unhappily,  still  cause,  in  the  world.  Rous- 
seau  took  no  step  forward  in  education.  What  is  true 
in  his  scheme  is  due,  mostly,  to  Locke;  what  is  his  own 
is  false  and  misleading.  Though  pretending  to  have 
great  sympathy  with  the  lower  classes,  he  is  opposed  to 
their  being  educated.  "  Ignorance  is  bliss."  The  sober 
truth  is,  he  understood  almost  nothing  either  of  the 
methods  or  of  the  aims  of  education,  and  it  was  only  his 
insidious,  dogmatic,  and  sentimental  style  that  made  him 
popular  with  people  who  knew  as  little  as  he  did.  His 
anarchic,  unsocial  individualism  and  his  demand  for  im- 
mediate, sensual  pleasure  co-operated  with  Voltaire's  all- 
dissolving  intellectual  scepticism  in  bringing  about  the 
French  Revolution,  and  in  imparting  to  it  those  char- 
acteristics which  rendered  it  so  ineffective  for  good.  Vol- 
taire broke  the  old  theological  social  bonds;  Eousseau 


THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY       219 

forbade  man  to  look  for  new  ones  in  reason.*  The  re- 
sult could  hardly  have  been  other  than  it  was,  a  furious 
revolution,  followed  by  a  blind  reaction.  If  France  is 
to-day  rent  by  the  opposing  claims  of  theological  author- 
ity and  sensual  anarchism,  we  know  the  reason  why. 

The  sun  of  the  eighteenth  century  set  in  blood,  be- 
cause old  moral  sanctions  had  failed,  and  new  ones  had 
not  been  found.  Before  such  could  be  found;  before  edu- 
cation and  civilization  could  advance  to  higher  ground, 
a  new  philosophy,  furnishing  a  true  interpretation  of  the 
growing  movement  toward  truth  and  freedom,  a  new 
view  of  the  world  and  man's  relation  to  it,  had  to  arise. 
And  it  did  arise,  or  rather  it  had  arisen  (too  late  to  be  of 
service  in  the  great  cataclysm)  in  the  mind  of  the  half- 
Scotch,  half-German  Immanuel  Kant,f  with  whom  a 
new  era  in  the  world's  spiritual  history  begins. 

*As  Socrates  did,  [in  similar  circumstances.  France  found  no  So- 
crates. 

t  Born  at  KSnigsberg,  1724,  and  lived  there,  as  student,  private  tutor, 
librarian,  and  professor,  his  entire  life.  His  epoch-making  work,  the 
Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  appeared  in  1781.  He  died  in  1804. 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE   NINETEENTH   CENTUEY 

Two  things  move  me  to  ever  greater  awe  ;  the  starry  heavens 
above  me  and  the  moral  law  within  me.  Duty  !  Word  so  sublime 
and  full  of  meaning,  whence  art  thou,  and  what  origin  is  worthy  of 
thee  ?  Thou  dost  not  appeal  to  us  through  the  persuasiveness  of  pas- 
sion; nor  by  threats  dost  thou  seek  to  stir  our  wills.  Thou  wouldst 
not  have  us  shrink  from  thee  in  fear  and  terror.  But  thou  settest 
up  a  law  which  is  of  our  own  souls ;  to  this  law  thou  exactest  un- 
conditional submission.  Before  the  law  we  bow  in  awe,  even 
though  not  always  in  obedience;  all  feelings  retire  before  it  in 
silence,  even  though  they  may  seek  to  evade  its  decrees. — KANT. 

The  understanding  creates  the  world. — KANT. 
Man  is  man  and  master  of  his  fate. — TENNYSON. 

The  antithesis  .  .  .  between  the  self  and  the  world  is  not  a 
valid  antithesis  psychologically  considered.  The  self  is  realized  by 
taking  in  "  copies  "  from  the  world  and  the  world  is  enabled  to  set 
higher  copies  only  through  the  constant  reactions  of  the  individual 
self  upon  it.  Morally  I  am  as  much  a  part  of  society  as  physically 
I  am  a  part  of  the  world's  fauna ;  and  as  my  body  gets  its  best  ex- 
planation from  the  point  of  view  of  its  place  in  a  zoological  scale, 
so  morally  I  occupy  a  place  in  a  social  order ;  and  an  important 
factor  in  the  understanding  of  me  is  the  understanding  of  it. — 
BALDWIN,  Mental  Development,  etc. ,  pp.  487  seq. 

The  presiding  genius  of  the  spiritual  life  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  is  Kant,  the  modern  Socrates.  This  is 
not  the  place  to  give  an  account  of  his  mental  develop- 
ment. Suffice  it  to  say  that  he  gathered  up  in  himself, 

220 


THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

and  did  his  best  to  harmonize,  all  the  forward  movements 
of  the  three  preceding  centuries.  Descartes  and  Locke 
met  in  him.  He  set  the  dogmatism  of  Wolf  off  against 
the  scepticism  of  Hume,  and  found  both  equally  unsat- 
isfying. Hume,  the  modern  Protagoras,  had  completely 
dissolved  the  independent,  given  world  of  ancient  and 
medieval  thought,  and  defied  men  to  prove  the  existence 
of  any  world  other  than  that  composed  of  their  own  im- 
pressions and  ideas.  Here  was  individualism  with  a 
vengeance!  Kant  clearly  saw  that  Hume  could  not  be 
refuted,  and  that  he  had  completely  changed  the  aspect 
of  the  philosophic  problem.  Of  old  the  question  had 
been:  How  does  a  world  existing  external  to,  and  inde- 
pendent of  thought,  find  its  way  into  the  human  con- 
sciousness? Now  it  is:  How  does  the  mind,  whose  world 
consists  solely  of  its  own  experience,  ever  come  to  think 
that  there  is  a  world  external  to,  and  independent  of, 
that  experience?  It  was  no  longer,  How  does  the  world 
get  into  the  mind,  but,  How  does  it  get  out  of  the  mind? 
— no  longer,  How  does  the  mind  appropriate  a  world 
already  existing?  but,  How  does  it  build  up  any  world 
of  which  it  can  predicate  existence?  Kant  saw  that  this 
was  as  great  a  change  in  the  spiritual  world  as  the  Co- 
pernican  astronomy  had  been  in  the  material.  According 
to  the  new  view,  education  is  no  longer  world-appropria- 
tion, but  world-building.  Each  man,  by  his  own  mental 
processes,  builds  up  his  own  world.  The  question  is: 
How  is  this  done?  and  Kant  undertakes  to  reply.  The 
subjectivism  of  Descartes  and  Locke  has  come  to  frui- 
tion; Protestantism  has  found  its  philosophy;  freedom, 
its  essential  condition. 
Next  to  Hume,  it  was  perhaps  Eousseau  who  most 


222 

deeply  influenced  Kant.  Hardly  any  two  men  were  ever 
more  dissimilar  in  character  and  aims  than  the  G-enevese 
sensualist  and  the  Konigsberg  rigorist;  and  yet  the  one 
had  something  to  give  to  the  other.  There  was  more  in 
Eousseau  besides  his  sensuous,  unsocial  ideal  of  life,  and 
his  absurd  notions  about  education.  His  passionate  love 
of  nature,  his  glowing  descriptions  of  its  simple  delights, 
and  his  call  to  men  to  abandon  burdensome  and  distort- 
ing conventionalities  and  live  a  natural  life,  formed  a 
timely  message,  which  the  world  needed,  and  which  it 
received  with  gladness.  It  convinced  Kant  that  true 
human  progress  is  progress  in  living,  and  not  merely  in 
knowing.  To  live  truth  is  better  than  to  know  it.*  If 
the  intellectual  scepticism  of  Voltaire  influenced  him  but 
slightly,  it  was  because  it  was  a  mild  affair  compared 
with  that  of  Hume,  which  was  thoroughgoing. 

Stirred  up  by  Hume  and  Eousseau,  Kant  sent  forth 
this  message  to  the  world,  and  particularly  to  its  teachers: 
Let  each  soul  build  up  within  itself  a  coherent  and  ra- 
tional world,  so  that  it  can  lead  a  free,  moral,  natural 
life  in  the  society  of  other  souls.  This  is  not,  irideed, 
Kant's  formulation  of  it;  but  this  is  what  he  meant. 
His  timidity  f  and  a  curious  and  a  very  illogical  assump- 
tion of  "  things-in-themselves,"  independent  of  thought, 
introduced  confusion  and  contradiction  into  his  system, 
and  left  open  the  door  for  a  new  dogmatism,  such  as  we 
find  in  Schelling  and  Hegel,  and  a  new  scepticism  (re- 
christened  agnosticism),  represented  by  men  like  Mansel, 

*  On  the  effect  of  Rousseau's  teaching  upon  subsequent  literature,  see 
my  Rousteau,  pp.  211-244 

t  He  said  :  "  I  have  the  very  clearest  conviction  of  much  that  I  shall 
never  have  the  courage  to  say ;  but  I  shall  never  say  what  I  do  not 
think." 


THE  NINETEENTH   CENTUKY  223 

Huxley,  and  Spencer.  It  is  often  wise  to  accept  a  man's 
principles,  and  ignore  the  conclusions  which  his  timidity 
drew  from  them.  If  we  do  this  with  Kant,  we  shall  find 
that  his  message  is  clear  and  strong.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that,  unless  the  ultimate  in  being  be  identical  with 
the  ultimate  in  knowledge,  there  is  no  possible  escape 
from  scepticism,  or  dogmatism,  which  is  but  disingenu- 
ous scepticism.  Could  Kant  have  seen  that  feeling  is 
the  ultimate  both  in  being  and  in  thought,  the  true 
thing-in-itself,  all  his  difficulties  would  have  vanished, 
and  the  fundamental  conditions  of  moral  life  would  have 
become  something  more  than  "  postulates "  for  him.* 
Even  his  "  categorical  imperative  "  would  have  been  un- 
necessary, because  he  would  have  found  the  source  of 
all  moral  authority  in  the  human  breast. 

After  Kant's  death,  the  extravagances  and  horrors  of 
the  French  Eevolution,  in  which  the  forces  of  freedom 
had  prematurely  exploded,  caused  a  reaction  against 
freedom  itself,  and  a  return  to  medievalism,  authority, 
and  supernaturalism.  In  Catholic  countries,  this  took 
the  form  of  a  romantic,  sentimental  Neo-Catholicism; 
in  some  Protestant  countries,  that  of  a  return  to  Neo- 
Platonism  or  philosophic  mysticism,  f  This  reaction, 
naturally,  affected  education,  leaving  it,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, on  the  old  lines  and  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy. 
Nevertheless,  the  new  Neo-Platonism,  being,  like  the  old, 
essentially  evolutionary,  did  valuable  work  in  its  way, 

*  I  am  here  assuming  in  my  readers  a  certain  acquaintance  with  Kant's 
philosophy.  If  this  seems  unwise,  I  would  only  say  that  without  a 
Knowledge  of  that  philosophy  it  is  impossible  to  understand  the  educa- 
tional movements  and  needs  of  the  present. 

t  The  "  Restoration-Philosophy  "  of  Hegel  is  quite  as  reactionary  in 
principle  as  the  Catholicism  of  Bonnet  and  Chateaubriand.  It  is  need- 
less to  say  that  Catholicism  remains  irrevocably  committed  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  tradition  and  authority. 


224  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

by  showing  that  there  is  order  and  development  in  the 
process  of  the  world,  and  offering  a  new  field  and 
meaning  to  science.  Though  it  still,  in  spite  of  Kant's 
warning,*  functioned  with  empty  logical  abstractions — 
Being,  Naught,  Becoming,  etc. — instead  of  with  the 
concrete  facts  of  existence,  and,  therefore,  frequently 
arrived  at  arbitrary  and  false  results,  fatal  to  liberty,  it, 
nevertheless,  performed  a  great  service,  in  insisting  upon 
the  fact  that  the  material  of  science  and  education  is 
a  process,  an  evolution,  and  can  be  explained  only  as 
such.f  Thus  it  was  that  ideal,  paved  the  way  for  real, 
evolution. 

In  spite  of  this,  it  was  not  from  the  reactionary  move- 
ments, Catholic  or  Protestant,  of  the  early  part  of  this 
century,  that  advances  in  education  sprang,  but  rather 
from  those  freedom-seeking  movements  of  the  eigh- 
teenth, which  received  a  temporary  check  in  the  French 
Revolution.  They  can  nearly  all  be  traced  back  to 
Rousseau  and  Kant,  and  may  be  classed  under  five  heads 
(1)  the  instructors,  (2)  the  instructed,  (3)  the  matter 
of  instruction,  (4)  the  methods  of  instruction,  (5)  the 
end  of  instruction. 

(1)  Advance  with  reference  to  instructors:  From  the 
days  of  Alcuin  to  the  rise  of  Protestantism,  education 
was  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy.  Since 
that  event,  but  particularly  since  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, there  has  been  an  increasing  tendency  to  withdraw 


*  "Thoughts  without  content  are  empty ;  intuitions  without  concepts 
are  blind." — Kant,  Critique  of  Pure  Reason. 

t  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  all  the  ancient  words  for  nature  (<frwi«. 
y«V«<7is,  natura)  have  this  meaning.  Our  modern  terms,  evolution  and 
development,  have  false  implications.  Growth  is  not  merely  a  mechani- 
cal unfolding. 


THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  225 

it  from  their  hands  and  place  it  in  those  of  laymen. 
Along  with  this  has  gone  a  tendency  to  withdraw  it 
from  the  Church  altogether,  and  hand  it  over  to  the 
State.  At  the  present  day  a  system  of  state  education, 
conducted  chiefly  by  laymen,  prevails  in  all  protestant, 
and  also  in  some  catholic  and  "  orthodox,"  countries, 
such  as  Italy  and  Greece.  Even  Egypt  has  such  a  sys- 
tem. It  is  not  long  since  every  college  and  university 
in  the  United  States  thought  it  necessary  to  have  a 
clergyman  for  president.  At  present  a  very  large  num- 
ber have  lay  presidents,  and  that  number  is  yearly  in- 
creasing. Even  in  our  public  schools  there  is  very  little 
tendency  to  allow  the  clergy  to  give  instruction  even  in 
their  special  subject — religion.  What  religious  instruc- 
tion there  is,  is  usually  imparted  by  the  ordinary  lay 
teachers,  the  majority  of  whom  are  women. 

(2)  Advance  with  reference  to  the  instructed:  In  the 
Middle  Age,  education,  in  the  sense  of  "  book-learning," 
was  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  clergy,  while  the 
nobility  obtained  instruction  in  what  may  be  called  the 
knightly  arts  at  the  courts  of  princes  or  bishops.*  The 
Eeformation  and  Eenaissance  extended  book-learning 
to  the  well-to-do  classes  generally;  but  very  little  was 
done  for  the  poor,  or  laboring  classes.  Even  Locke  re- 
fused to  consider  them,  and  Eousseau  bluntly  declared 
that  they  needed  no  education.  It  was  the  attainment 
of  self-consciousness  by  the  people  f  at  the  French  Eevo- 
lution,  coupled  with  Kant's  contention  that  every  hu- 

*  See  the  Introduction  of  The  Bdbeea  Book,  in  the  Publications  of  the 
Early  English  Text  Society. 

t  It  is  but  fair  to  say  that  Rousseau,  despite  his  opposition  to  popular 
education,  greatly  contributed  to  this,  by  his  intense  sympathy  with  the 
life  of  the  people. 

15 


226  THE   HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

man  being  is  his  own  end,  that  imparted  to  the  cause 
of  popular  education  that  impulse  which,  during  the 
greater  part  of  this  century,  has  been  spreading  from 
land  to  land.  At  the  present  day  there  is  a  general  con- 
sensus that  education  ought  to  be  universal,  and,  in- 
deed, it  must  be  so  in  every  democratic  country  that 
hopes  to  continue  such.  Without  education  liberty  is 
impossible. 

(3)  Advance  with  reference  to  the  matter  of  instruc- 
tion: While  education  was  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy, 
the  subjects  studied  were  chiefly  those  relating  to  re- 
ligion and  the  supernatural.  Not  only  philosophy,  but 
all  science,  was  held  to  be  ancillary  to  theology.  Rea- 
son itself  had  to  accept  dictation  from  authority.  Nat- 
ure and  the  natural  sciences,  culture  and  the  culture 
sciences,  received  but  little  attention.  Education,  look- 
ing backwards,  strove  to  impart  ancient,  especially  "  re- 
vealed" truth,  frequently  displaying  a  dread  of  the 
intrusion  of  new  truth.*  Revelation  had  shown  what 
nature  must  be;  the  followers  of  revelation  cared  little 
to  inquire  what  it  was.  In  proportion  as  education  has 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  State  and  the  laity,  it  has, 
more  and  more,  turned  its  attention  to  nature,  and  life 
in  nature.  Instead  of  reasoning  downward  from  causes, 
or  a  Cause,  supposed  to  be  independently  known,  to  ef- 
fects or  facts,  it  examines  the  facts,  and  reasons  up  from 
them  to  their  causes,  determining  the  latter  wholly  by 
the  former.  This  is  the  method  of  science,  as  opposed 
to  that  of  theology.  It  follows  naturally  that,  whereas 
the  subjects  of  the  old  education  consisted  of  authori- 
tative texts,  calling  for  an  ascetic  discipline,  those  of  the 

*  See  White,  Hist,  of  the  Warfare  of  Theology  with  Science. 


THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  227 

new  education  are  the  facts  of  nature  and  culture,  call- 
ing for  a  many-sided  development  of  the  individual,  as 
essentially  a  social  being. 

(4)  Advance  in  the  methods  of  instruction:  Learn- 
ing by  heart  and  cultivating  obedience,  under  dread  of 
the  rod,  was,  on  the  whole,  the  method  of  the  older 
education.  All  needful  truth  being  known,  the  teacher 
had  only  to  impart  it,  and  this  was  most  readily  done 
through  the  memory,  which  could  be  quickened  by  the 
rod.*  Even  the  rules  of  arithmetic  were  committed  to 
memory,  no  attempt  being  made  to  understand  them.f 
Moreover,  since  all  truth  depended  upon  authority,  the 
proper  attitude  toward  it  was,  not  comprehension,  but 
acceptance  and  obedience.  Discussion,  to  be  sure,  there 
was  in  abundance,  especially  in  the  Jesuit  schools;  but, 
as  the  conclusion,  in  every  case,  was  known  beforehand, 
it  could  be  little  more  than  a  pretence  at  a  search  for 
truth.  Truth  uncomprehended  could  not  be  intelli- 
gently obeyed:  hence  the  need  for  the  rod.J  In  all 
this,  the  new  education  stands  in  almost  direct  opposi- 
tion to  the  old.  It  makes  authority  dependent  upon 
truth  rationally  comprehended,  and  trusts  to  such  com- 
prehension for  conformable  conduct.  In  a  word,  while 
the  old  education  was  education  for  subordination,  the 
new  education  is  education  for  freedom,  or  intelligent 
cooperation.  The  latter,  therefore,  endeavors,  not  to 
crowd  the  memory  with  words,  but  to  develop  the  in- 

*And  how  it  can  be  quickened!  A  few  years  ago,  I  found,  in  the 
11  waqf  "  schools  of  Cairo,  many  boys  of  fourteen  and  fifteen,  who  could 
repeat  the  entire  Qoran,  a  work  about  as  long  as  the  New  Testament. 

t  This  within  my  own  memory. 

J  The  extent  to  which  the  rod  was  used,  even  in  recent  times,  ia  now 
almost  incredible.  I  have  known  of  fathers  complaining  because  their 
boys  were  not  "thrashed"  at  school.  Cf.  Hinsdale,  Horace  Mann.  pp. 
190  sqq. 


228  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

telligence,  by  the  direct  study  of  the  facts  of  reality.  It 
is  a  parent,  guiding  the  mind,  not  a  slave-master,  driv- 
ing it.  It  is  daily  becoming  better  aware  of  its  own  con- 
ditions and  implications,  as  it  shows  plainly,  by  its  in- 
sistence upon  "  child-study,"  which,  no  doubt,  will  soon 
be  supplemented  by  parent-study,  teacher-study,  and  the 
study  of  social  environment. 

(5)  Advance  with  reference  to  the  end  of  education: 
The  aim  of  the  old  education  was  to  prepare  for  another 
world,  for  a  life  after  death.  Its  view  of  this  world  is 
admirably  expressed  by  Moore: 

"The  world  is  ail  a  passing  show, 

For  man's  illusion  given : 
The  smiles  of  joy,  the  tears  of  woe, 
Deceitful  shine,  deceitful  flow : 

There's  nothing  true  but  Heaven." 

With  such  a  view,  this  life  was,  of  course,  despised,  and 
provision  made  for  it  only  reluctantly.  The  body,  as 
belonging  to  this  world,  was  shamefully  neglected,  and 
at  certain  periods  recklessly  abused.  The  laws  of  civic 
life  were  ignored,  so  that  society  often  sank  into  bar- 
barism. The  path  of  moral  life  was  not  supposed  to 
lead  to  heaven,  but  at  best  to  limbo.*  Only  the  path 
of  faith  and  ecclesiastical  observance  led  to  the  former. 
The  aim  of  the  new  education  is  very  different.  While 

*  See  Dante,  Hell,  IV.,  31-42.  "  Thou  askest  not  what  spirits  these 
are  which  thou  seest  ?  Now  I  wish  thee  to  know,  before  thou  goest 
further,  that  they  sinned  not ;  and  if  they  have  merits,  it  sufficeth  not, 
because  they  had  not  baptism,  which  is  part  of  the  faith  which  thou 
believest.  And  if  they  lived  before  Christianity,  they  worshipped  not 
God  duly.  And  of  these  same  am  I  [Virgil]  myself.  For  such  defects, 
and  for  no  other  sin,  we  are  lost,  and  are  only  so  far  afflicted  that,  with- 
out hope,  we  live  in  desire."  It  would  be  easy  to  match  this  view  from 
the  works  of  recent  writers,  Cardinal  Newman,  Henry  Drummond,  etc. 


THE  NINETEENTH  OENTUKt  229 

by  no  means  setting  lightly  by,  or  denying,  eternal  life, 
it  insists  upon  making  the  most  of  this  life,  holding  it 
to  be  a  phase  of  the  other,  preparatory  to  all  other  pos- 
sible phases.  The  more  completely  we  unfold  our  pow- 
ers, and  perform  our  duties,  personal,  domestic,  social, 
political,  in  this  life,  the  better  prepared  shall  we  be  to 
enter  upon  the  functions  and  joys  of  another.*  Hence 
the  new  education  sets  up,  as  its  aim,  the  highest  de- 
velopment of  the  social  individual,  in  all  the  faculties 
of  body,  soul,  and  spirit.  It  seeks  to  prepare  men  for  a 
heaven  hereafter  by  inducing  them  to  create  a  heaven 
here  and  now.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  it  does  not  al- 
ways show  itself  conscious  of  this  great  purpose,  finding 
much  difficulty  in  freeing  itself  from  medievalism;  but, 
as  time  advances,  this  consciousness  grows  clearer  and 
clearer. 

Such  is  the  new  education,  as  contrasted  with  the  old. 
It  remains  for  us  to  trace  briefly  its  progress  thus  far, 
and  to  indicate  its  future  course.  In  doing  so,  we  must 
confine  our  attention  to  salient  points,  abandoning  all 
attempt  to  follow  it  in  detail,  or  in  different  countries. 
These  points  are  marked  by  a  few  great  names. 

The  first  man  who  took  a  notable  step  forward  in 
education,  on  the  lines  of  Eousseau  and  Kant — that 
is,  toward  Nature  and  Reason — was  Pestalozzi,f  who, 
though  born  before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 

*See  Matthew  XXV.  14-30. 

t  Heinrich  Pestalozzi,  born  at  Zurich.,  1746 ;  loses  his  father,  1751 ;  fol- 
lows agriculture,  1765-75 ;  conducts  a  primary  school  for  poor  children 
on  his  farm  at  Neuhof ,  1775-80 ;  becomes  a  writer  on  education,  1780-87 ; 
resumes  agriculture,  1787-97 ;  made  a  citizen  of  France,  with  Washington 
and  Klopstock,  1792 ;  conducts  orphan  asylum  at  Stanz,  1798-99 ;  the 
schools  at  Burgdorf,  i799-1802 ;  visits  Paris,  1803  ;  conducts  a  secondary 
school  at  Yverdun,  1805-24 ;  returns  to  Neuhof,  1824 ;  dies,  1827. 


230  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

tury,  belongs  in  spirit,  and  largely  in  activity,  to  the 
nineteenth.  With  little  learning,  and  less  system,  but 
with  overwhelming  faith  in  the  people  and  love  for  chil- 
dren, this  warm-hearted,  devoted  man  may  fairly  be  said 
to  be  the  father  of  modern  popular  education.  In  depth 
of  feeling,  he  resembled  Eousseau,  from  whom  he  bor- 
rowed much;  but,  unlike  Eousseau,  he  was  inspired  with 
a  lofty  morality  and  sense  of  duty,  which  made  him  con- 
secrate his  life  to  education,  as  the  only  means  whereby 
the  people  might  be  redeemed  from  vice,  degradation, 
and  misery.  His  practical  results  cannot  be  estimated 
highly,  and  his  books  are  full  of  wordy  sentimentality 
and  confusion;  but,  in  spite  of  this,  he  succeeded  in 
imparting  a  new  spirit  and  scope  to  education,  in  almost 
every  direction.  Above  all,  he  insisted  that  education 
should  be  extended  to  the  whole  people,  that  its  methods 
should  be  kindly  and  considerate,  and  that  it  should 
relate  to  things  rather  than  to  words,  to  facts  rather 
than  to  rules.  He  aimed  to  cultivate  not  merely  the 
intelligence,  but  also,  and  still  more,  the  affections,  the 
moral  judgment,  and  the  will.  He  insisted  that  children 
should  learn  not  only  to  think,  but  also  to  do,  and  hence 
that  education  should  consist  largely  of  manual  labor. 

Whatever  success  Pestalozzi  had  was  due,  not  to  any 
reasoned  plan  or  clear  ideal,  but  to  the  infectious  en- 
thusiasm of  his  ardent,  loving  personality.  If  Eousseau 
is  the  parent  of  the  modern  love  of  nature,  Pestalozzi  is 
the  parent  of  the  modern  love  for  children,  and  it  is  this 
love  that  has  transformed  education  from  a  harsh,  re- 
pressive discipline  into  a  tender,  thoughtful  guidance.  In 
Pestalozzi,  Eousseau's  demand  for  an  education  through 
nature,  and  Kant's  demand  that  every  human  being 


THE   NINETEENTH   CENTUEY  231 

should  be  regarded  as  his  own  end,  met  and  found  real- 
ization, through  love  that  fuses  all  things.  If  Eousseau 
had  made  men  aware  of  the  glories  of  nature,  Pestalozzi 
demanded  that  children  should  be  made  acquainted  with 
them.  If  Kant  had  emphasized  the  worth  of  the  in- 
dividual soul,  Pestalozzi  insisted  that  that  worth  should 
be  realized  and  recognized.  The  recognition  of  nature 
led  to  science,  that  of  individual  worth  to  true  ethics. 
After  Pestalozzi,  people  saw  children  with  new  eyes,  in- 
vested them  with  new  interest,  and  felt  the  importance 
of  placing  them  in  a  true  relation  to  the  world  of  nat- 
ure and  culture.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  all 
modern  education  breathes  the  spirit  of  Pestalozzi.  It 
is  education  for  freedom,  not  for  subordination. 

Nevertheless,  Pestalozzi's  work,  like  Rousseau's,  was 
of  the  nature  of  a  reaction,  and,  like  all  reactions,  one- 
sided. The  older  education  had  directed  its  attention 
mainly  to  the  memory,  and  operated  through  authority. 
Pestalozzi,  turning  his  back  on  both  these,  sought  to 
develop  the  powers  of  observation  and  generalization, 
and  to  operate  through  love.  The  reaction  was  most 
salutary;  but  it  needed  to  be  corrected.  After  all,  mem- 
ory and  authority  have  a  legitimate  place  in  education, 
as  in  life,  and  cannot  safely  be  neglected.  Observation 
without  memory,  and  love  without  authority,  are  vain, 
as  was  plainly  shown  by  the  failure  of  all  Pestalozzi's 
practical  experiments  in  teaching. 

To  remedy  the  defects  of  his  system,  to  round  and 
complete  it,  has  been  the  task  of  Pestalozzi's  followers, 
among  whom  must  count  every  prominent  teacher  of 
the  century.  This  task,  which  is  far  profounder  than 
the  pioneer  Pestalozzi  conceived  it  to  be,  resolves  itself 


232  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

into  this:  How  to  construct  in  the  soul  of  the  child  such 
a  world  that  it  shall  find  therein  complete  and  harmoni- 
ous exercise  for  all  its  faculties,  intellectual,  affectional. 
volitional.  With  a  view  to  this  it  becomes  necessaiy 
to  study  the  powers  of  the  child,  the  processes  by  whicn 
knowledge  is  acquired,  arranged,  and  stored  up,  the 
methods  by  which  the  affections  are  heartily  elicited  and 
trained  to  distribute  themselves  in  accordance  with  the 
worth  of  things  for  moral  ends,  the  discipline  by  which 
the  will  is  rendered  autonomous  and  placed  beyond  the 
influence  of  passion  and  appetite,  and,  finally,  the  con- 
ditions of  bodily  health,  strength,  and  plasticity.  Only 
when  such  knowledge  is  attained  and  applied  is  it  pos- 
sible fully  to  realize  that  education  which  we  have  called 
human,  which  places  the  soul  in  the  triple  relation  of 
knowledge,  love,  and  will  to  all  that  exists.  Though 
this  great  task  is  still  very  far  from  being  accomplished, 
the  followers  of  Pestalozzi  have  already  taken  consider- 
able steps  toward  its  accomplishment.  Chief  among 
these  are  Herbart,  Frcebel,  Rosmini,  and  Horace  Mann. 

The  work  of  Herbart  *  may  be  said  to  consist  in  com- 
bining the  method  of  the  old  education  with  that  of 
Pestalozzi,  in  recognizing  the  importance  of  memory  and 
mental  construction  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
Setting  aside  Kant's  doctrine  that  the  mind  is  a  group 
of  moulds — forms  of  sense,  categories  of  understanding, 

*  Johann  Friedrich  Herbart,  born  at  Oldenburg,  1776 ;  goes  to  Olden- 
burg Latin  school,  1788,  and  studies  Wolf's  philosophy  ;  enters  the 
University  of  Jena,  1794,  and  becomes  acquainted  with  Schiller  and 
Fichte ;  deserts  Fichte's  views,  17U6;  private  tutor  in  Interlaken,  1797- 
99;  in  Jena,  1800;  in  Bremen,  1801;  in  Gottingen,  1802;  takes  Kant's 
chair  in  Konigsberg,  1809 ;  marries  Mary  Drake,  1811 ;  returns  to  G6t- 
tingen,  1833 ;  dies,  1841.  See  J.  F.  Uerbarfa  PcirJagogische  tichriften., 
mit  H.'s  Biographic  herausgegeben  von  D.  Fr.  Bartholomai ;  and  De 
Garmo,  Herbart  and  the  Uerbartians,  in  "  The  Great  Educators." 


THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY  233 

postulates  of  reason — determining  a  priori  all  experi- 
ence, he  returned  to  the  Leibnizian  notion  that  the  soul 
is  a  self -denned,  substantial  monad,  and  maintained  that 
all  its  "  ideas  "  are  so  many  efforts  to  protect  itself  from 
invasion  by  other  monads — in  fact,  a  series  of  warlike 
attitudes,  each  of  which,  more  or  less,  conditions  all 
succeeding  ones.  On  this  basis  he  built  up  his  Psy- 
chology, as  an  indispensable  basis  for  educational  theory 
and  practice.*  According  to  this,  mental  action  is  a 
sort  of  dynamic  chemistry  of  attitudes  or  ideas,  of  which 
one's  world,  at  any  given  moment,  is  the  net  result. 
Ideas  are  of  different  strengths  and  have  different  af- 
finities, and  so  can  be  brought  within  the  domain  of 
mathematics.  The  soul  is  conceived  as  originally  a  mere 
undetermined  substance.  Invaded  from  without,  it  as- 
sumes an  attitude,  or  idea,  which  persists.  Invaded 
again  in  the  same  way,  it  emphasizes  this  attitude;  in- 
vaded differently,  it  assumes  an  attitude  compounded 
of  the  first,  and  of  the  new,  reactions.  Thus  it  proceeds, 
assuming  more  and  more  complicated  attitudes,  whose 
elements  enter  into  the  most  various  relations  to  each 
other.  The  attitude  which  it  assumes  to  each  fresh  in- 
vasion will  be  determined  by  the  complex  of  attitudes 
previously  assumed.  This  assimilation  of  new  ideas  by 
means  of  ideas  already  assimilated  Herbart  calls  "ap- 
perception." The  aim  of  the  teacher  should  be  to  make 
these  ideas,  or  attitudes,  form  an  harmonious  whole,  so 
that  each  new  invasion,  or  experience,  may  find  an  ap- 
propriate place  in  it.  The  moral  character  of  the  soul 
(and  the  end  of  all  education  is  moral  character)  will 

*  Indeed  he  may  be  called  the  father  of  modern  experimental  Psychol- 
ogy, Fechner,  Wundt,  etc.,  being  his  disciples. 


234  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

depend  upon  the  nature  of  this  whole  and  the  hierarchic 
relation  in  which  its  parts  stand  to  each  other.  When 
each  part  claims  its  proper  degree  of  "interest"  and 
attention,  the  character  will  be  perfect. 

It  is  easy  to  show  serious  defects  in  Herbart's  psy- 
chology. His  notion  of  a  soul-substance  is  a  pure  piece 
of  Greek  mythology,  having,  when  properly  investigated, 
no  meaning,  but  leading,  when  unwarily  accepted,  to 
agnosticism  and  fatalism.  His  chemistry  of  ideas,  in 
which,  apparently,  the  soul  plays  no  determining  part, 
is  as  purely  mythical  as  the  battles  of  the  Centaurs  and 
Lapithas,  and  likewise  leads  to  fatalism,  which,  indeed, 
he  frankly  professed.  His  insistence  that  ideas  precede 
feelings  in  the  mind,  and  that  the  latter  are  relations 
between  the  former,  is  a  complete  inversion  of  the  truth, 
which  is,  that  ideas  are  distinctions  between  feelings  or 
groups  of  feelings.  The  lower  orders  of  being  have 
feeling  without  ideas.  And  so  on.  The  fact  is,  Her- 
bart's psychology  is  antiquated,  fragmentary,  and  fanci- 
ful, and  the  same  is  true  of  all  his  work.  His  mind 
lacked  both  depth  and  system.  But,  for  all  that,  he  did 
excellent  work  in  the  cause  of  education;  (1)  by  recog- 
nizing the  need  of  psychology  as  a  basis  for  it;  (2)  by 
insisting,  as  against  Kant,  that  the  entire  content  of  con- 
sciousness is  due  to  experience,  and  therefore  can  be 
modified  by  education;  (3)  by  recognizing  that  moral 
life  is  the  end  of  all  education;  (4)  that  such  life  de- 
pends upon  the  nature  of  the  world  organized  in  the 
•(  mind  and  soul,  and  can,  therefore,  be  furthered  by  edu- 
cation. Herbart's  followers  have  done  much  to  correct 
his  errors,  to  rid  his  system  of  its  mechanical  and  fatal- 
istic elements,  and  to  bring  into  relief  its  merits,  so 


THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  235 

that  it  occupies  at  the  present  day  a  very  distinguished 
place  in  the  educational  world. 

The  man  who  did  most  to  carry  on  the  work  begun 
by  Pestalozzi,  was  Frcebel,  the  parent  of  the  "  Kinder- 
garten." *  Whereas  Herbart  philosophized  about  edu- 
cation, and  lectured  in  universities,  Froebel  devoted  him- 
self to  teaching,  and  finally,  to  the  earliest  stages  of  it. 
But  there  were  more  fundamental  differences  than  this. 
While  Herbart's  world  was  pluralistic,  consisting  of 
mutually  invading  and  resisting  monads,  related  to  each 
other  in  a  mechanical  way,  Frcebel's  world  was  monistic, 
guided  by  a  single  universally  interfused  power.  His 
marked  tendency  to  mysticism  and  pantheism,  which 
hence  resulted,  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  circum- 
stances of  his  early  life;  but  it  belongs  to  an  old  order 


*  Friedrich  Wilhelm  August  Froebel,  born  at  Oberweissbach  in  Thiir- 
ingen,  1782 ;  loses  his  mother,  1783,  and  is  left  almost  without  education 
till  1792,  when  he  goes  to  school  at  Stadt-Ilm ;  apprenticed  to  a  forester, 
1797  ;  enters  University  of  Jena,  1799,  but  is  a  failure ;  studies  farming 
at  Hildburghausen,  1801  ;  loses  his  father,  1802 ;  holds  rarious  offices  con- 
nected with  forestry,  1802-5 ;  becomes  a  teacher  at  Frankfort,  and  de- 
votes attention  to  the  art  of  teaching ;  visits  Pestalozzi  at  Yverdun, 
1805 ;  private  tutor  in  Rousselian  fashion,  1807 ;  takes  his  pupils  to 
Yverdun,  1808,  and  remains  two  years  ;  studies  the  plays  of  boys  ;  re- 
turns to  Frankfort,  1810;  attends  University  of  Gottingen,  1811-12; 
Berlin,  1813  ;  a  soldier,  1813-14 ;  in  Royal  Museum  at  Berlin,  1814-16 ; 
goes  to  Griesheim  and  opens  the  "  Universal  German  Educational  Insti- 
tute "  in  a  cottage ;  moves  with  institute  to  Keilhau,  1817 ;  marries 
Henrietta  Wilhelmine  Hoffmeister,  a  pupil  of  Schleiermacher  and  Fichte, 
1818;  publishes  his  "Education  of  Man, "1826;  his  institute  attacked 
and  ruined,  1829 ;  tries  to  work  in  Switzerland,  1829-32 ;  returns  to 
Keilhau,  1832;  moves  to  Burgdorf,  1835,  and  is  appointed  director  of 
the  orphanage ;  reaches  the  notion  of  the  kindergarten,  and  conceives 
a  plan  for  the  education  of  mothers ;  moves  to  Berlin,  1836 ;  starts  his 
"Institution  for  the  Nurture  of  Little  Children,"  at  Blankenburg,  1837  ; 
loses  his  wife,  1839 ;  invents  the  name  "  Kindergarten,"  1840 ;  publishes 
his  Mutter-und  Kose-Lieder,  1843;  leaves  Blankenburg,  and  lectures  in 
various  parts  of  Germany,  1844-49 ;  settles  at  Liebenstein  and  opens  an 
institute,  1849 ;  moves  to  Marienthal,  1850  ;  marries  Luise  Levin,  1851  ; 
kindergartens  forbidden,  as  socialistic,  in  Prussia,  and  Froebel  taxed 
with  atheism,  1851 ;  dies,  1852.  See  Bowen,  Froebel  and  Education 
through  Self-Activity  ;  Miss  Shirreff,  Life  of  Froebel. 


236  THE  HISTOKY   OF  EDUCATION 

of  thought,  and  involves  assumptions  not  justified  upon 
his  own  principles.  Pantheism,  if  fully  thought  out, 
proves  fatal  to  all  possibility  of  moral  life,  while  mys- 
ticism is  almost  sure  to  lead  to  a  breathless,  wide-eyed 
pietism.  In  Frosbel's  own  practice  they  did  compara- 
tively little  harm;  but,  in  those  of  his  weaker  followers, 
they  have  led  to  manifold  aberrations — sentimental  re- 
ligiosity, vain  talk  about  "  symbolism,"  and  the  like — 
which  have  often,  like  rank  weeds,  overgrown  his  system. 
But,  in  spite  of  this  drawback,  which  was  merely  a 
tribute  to  the  unconquered  past,  Frcebel  is  the  prince 
of  educators.  He  was  the  first  to  see,  and  to  state  clearly, 
that  education  is  conscious  evolution,  and  to  draw  the 
practical  conclusions  from  this  insight.  The  very  term 
"  Kindergarten  "  tells  the  story.  It  means  a  garden  in 
which  the  plants  are  children,  who,  in  order  that  they 
may  attain  Che  greatest  perfection,  are  to  receive  the 
proper  care  and  nourishment  at  the  proper  time.  He 
saw  distinctly  that  all  upward  evolution  is  due  to  con- 
tinuous self-activity,  under  the  proper  stimuli,  or  with 
reference  to  the  proper  objects,  and  that  such  activity, 
evoked  in  an  orderly  way,  and  continually  progressing, 
is  true  blessedness.*  He  insists,  therefore,  that  the  child 
shall  be  self-active  in  the  acquisition,  and  assimilation, 
as  well  as  in  the  expression,  of  knowledge;  moreover, 
that  knowledge  which  does  not  go  through  all  these 
three  processes  is  vain  and  fruitless.  This  view,  it  need 

*  Aristotle  (Eth.  Nicom.  Bks.  I.,  X.)  maintained  that  man's  happiness 
and  perfection  consisted  in  the  actualization  or  energy  (eVe'pyeia)  of  his 
highest  and  distinctive  faculty,  ?;iz.,  reason,  a  view  which  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  mediaeval  exaltation  of  contemplation,  as  against 
practice.  Froebel  holds  that  they  consist  in  the  progressive  and  harmo- 
nious actualization  of  all  man's  faculties,  in  the  evolution  of  the  entire 
human  being. 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY        237 

not  be  said,  is  diametrically  opposed  to  the  medieval 
one,  which  held  that  human  nature,  being  corrupt, 
needed  to  be  suppressed  and  replaced.  Frcebelism  is 
humanism,  pure  and  simple.  But,  though  Frcebel  in- 
sisted that  education  is  the  development  of  human  nat- 
ure, he  was  very  far  from  holding,  as  some  of  his  fol- 
lowers seem  inclined  to  do,  that  it  is  the  unregulated 
manifestation  of  human  "spontaneities."  This  would 
be  mere  unculture.  No  one  believed  more  completely 
in  regulation  and  discipline  than  Frcebel;  only  he  main- 
tained that  they  should  be  applied  with  full  understand- 
ing of  the  present  condition  and  future  ideals  of  their 
subjects,  which  means  that  they  should  be  applied  gen- 
tly and  rationally.  He  saw,  what  few  people  see,  that, 
though  children  are  born  with  what  are  called  evil 
tendencies,  these  may  be  starved  into  inaction,  while 
good  tendencies,*  though  weak,  may  be  nourished  into 
complete  energy,  by  having  their  proper  "good"  sup- 
plied to  them  in  the  proper  degree  and  at  the  proper 
time.f  Having  observed  that  the  tendencies  of  children 
manifest  themselves  most  fully  in  play,  he  concluded 
that  there  they  can  be  most  effectively  dealt  with. 
Hence  the  kindergarten,  which  is  a  scheme  for  regu- 
lating play  in  such  a  way  that,  without  ceasing  to  be 
play,  it  shall  be  made  a  means  for  developing,  in  an 
ordered  way,  the  whole  nature  of  the  child. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  the  details  of  the 
kindergarten,  with  which  Frcebel's  name  and  fame  are 

*  I  believe  no  tendency  ever  showa  itself  until  it  has  received  some 
sort  of  satisfaction. 

t  It  is  strange  that  Frcebel  should  have  maintained,  in  spite  of  this, 
that  children  are  naturally  good.  This  is  a  mere  shred  of  Rousselian 
sentimentality,  of  a  piece  with  his  mysticism.  Nothing  is  naturally 
either  good  or  bad.  Both  are  moral  and  acquired  attributes. 


238  THE  HISTOEY   OF  EDUCATION 

chiefly  associated;  but  two  facts  must  be  emphasized: 
(1)  that  Frcebel  demands  for  the  human  being  an  edu- 
cation in  and  through  its  entire  environment,  that  is, 
the  universe,  past,  present,  and  future;  (2)  that  his  sys- 
tem is  applicable,  not  only  to  small  children,  but  to 
human  beings  at  all  stages  of  education.  If  Frcebel 
confined  his  chief  attention  to  the  former,  it  was  be- 
cause he  wished  to  lay  his  foundation  secure  before  pro- 
ceeding with  his  superstructure.  The  latter  he  had  to 
leave  to  other  hands,  which  have  not  yet,  to  any  large 
extent,  appeared. 

The  chief  weakness  in  Frcebel's  system  has  already 
been  pointed  out.  There  are  a  few  minor  ones,  which 
may  be  here  touched  upon.  (1)  The  system  is  adapted 
specially  to  German  children  and  German  ideals,  and 
requires  considerable  modification  before  it  can  be 
adopted,  with  success,  by  other  peoples.  This  fact  has 
not  been  sufficiently  regarded  by  English  and  Ameri- 
can teachers.  (2)  It  wastes  time  in  making  children 
learn  consciously  what  they  would  soon  learn  uncon- 
sciously and  without  effort.*  We  should  never  forget 
that  unconscious  learning  is  the  best.  (3)  It  is  apt,  in 
the  hands  of  inferior  teachers,  to  leave  children  with 
the  notion  that  all  education  must  be  play,  and  there- 
fore delightful.  (4)  It  is  too  much  inclined  to  confine 
the  attention  of  children  to  the  things  about  them,  and 
thereby  to  stunt  the  imagination.  The  unfamiliar,  and 
even  the  unknown,  dimly  conceived  or  held  only  by  a 
word,  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  part  of  a  child's 
world,  and  it  is  certainly  the  one  that  is  most  useful  for 

*For  example,  in  making  them  trace  back  the  bread  they  eat,  through 
various  processes,  to  seed-corn. 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTUEY        239 

the  cultivation  of  the  imagination.  Nature-study  is  ad- 
mirable; but  it  ought  to  be  supplemented  by  the  study 
of  the  products  of  the  creative  imagination.  Men  de- 
voted to  natural  science  are  wont  to  be  defective  in 
imagination,  and  to  lose  their  taste  for  poetry.  Even 
Darwin  had  to  complain  of  this  in  his  own  case.  Stories 
relating  to  things  they  have  never  seen  are  of  high  in- 
terest and  value  to  children.  It  is  often  well  to  make 
them  commit  to  memory  poems,  and  later  to  read  books, 
which  they  do  not  at  the  time  fully  understand.  What 
child  fully  understands  the  old  ballads,  or  the  novels  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott?  And  yet  what  treasures  they  are! 
What  is  more  delightful  and  educative  than  Alice  in  Won- 
derland? And  yet  who,  young  or  old,  understands  it? 
Frcebel  would  doubtless  have  learnt  much  from  it.  (5) 
The  Mutter-und  Kose-Lieder  are  mostly  mere  doggerel, 
apt  to  destroy,  rather  than  cultivate,  the  child's  sense 
of  rhythm,  poetic  diction,  and  poetry,  and  they  are  not 
improved  by  translation.  Many  of  them,  moreover,  are 
too  childish  for  American  children. 

But  these  are  mere  spots  in  the  sun,  and  the  fact  re- 
mains that  all  future  education  must  be  built  upon  the 
foundation  laid  by  Frcebel. 

The  pedagogical  writings  of  the  Eoman  Catholic 
Rosmini  *  in  many  ways  resemble  those  of  Herbart  and 

*  Antonio  Rosmini-Serbati,  born  at  Rovereto  in  the  Tyrol,  1797 ; 
studies  at  Padua,  1817-21  ;  loses  his  father  and  inherits  a  fortune,  1820  ; 
ordained  priest  and  visits  Rome,  1821  ;  studies  at  home,  1820-26  ;  founds 
an  institution  for  the  Daughters  of  Charity,  1825  ;  at  Milan,  1826-28 ; 
sets  out  to  found  a  religious  order  at  Domodossola,  1828  ;  in  Rome,  1828- 
30;  at  Domodossola,  1830-34;  priest  at  Rovereto,  1834-37;  retires  to 
Stresa,  1837  ;  his  institute  (Brothers  of  Charity)  approved  by  the  pope, 
1839;  goes  as  Piedmontese  envoy  to  the  pope,  1848;  declines  the  presi- 
dency of  the  papal  ministry,  1848;  returns  to  Stresa,  1849;  his  works 
examined  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Index,  and  finally  dismissed  as 
free  from  censure,  1851-54;  dies,  1855.  See  Life,  prefixed  to  my  trans- 
lation of  his  Philosophical  System,  London,  1882. 


240  THE   HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

Frcebel,  though  he  seems  to  have  been  acquainted  with 
neither,  and  though  his  thought  rests  upon  principles 
widely  different  from  theirs.  Indeed,  his  work  may  be 
regarded  as  a  combination  of  Herbert's  theory  of  apper- 
ception with  Frcebel's  doctrine  of  education,  as  ordered 
evolution.*  He  is  as  much  interested  as  either  in  nature- 
study,  and  in  the  moral  elevation  of  man;  but  his  dis- 
tinctive merit  is  his  insistence  that  there  is  a  definite 
order  in  apperception,  and  that,  corresponding  to  each 
successive  grade  of  apperceptive  "  intellection,"  there  is 
a  grade  of  volition.  With  admirable  cogency  he  shows 
that  the  natural  progress  of  the  mind  is  from  ideas  of 
large  denotation  to  ideas  of  large  connotation,  e.g.,  from 
plant,  through  flowering  plant,  rose,  to  damask  rose.  If 
a  child  is  told  that  a  certain  plant  is  a  damask  rose,  he 
is  apt  to  call  every  plant  by  the  same  name,  and  has  to 
correct  himself  at  every  onward  step;  whereas,  if  he 
is  told  that  the  same  object  is  a  plant,  every  step  in  his 
future  progress  will  be  correct;  for  all  flowering  plants, 
roses,  and  damask  roses  are  plants;  all  roses  and  damask 
roses  are  flowering  plants,  and  all  damask  roses  are 
roses.  Such  is  the  natural  order  of  apperception;  such 
is  the  way  to  cultivate  the  observation  of  nature  and  to 
learn  the  relations  between  its  different  parts.  "A 
thought  is  what  serves  as  matter,  or  supplies  the  matter, 

*His  chief  pedagogical  work,  Del  Principle  Supremo  delta  Metodica 
e  di  alcune  xue  Applicazioni  in  Servigio  dell '  Umana  Educazione,  re- 
mained a  fragment,  not  extending  beyond  the  fifth  year  of  the  child's 
life ;  nevertheless  it  contains  his  whole  theory.  It  was  written  in  1839- 
40,  but  was  not  published  till  1857,  two  years  after  his  death.  It 
rested  upon  a  large  amount  of  careful  child-study.  It  has  been  trans- 
lated by  Mrs.  Maria  Gray  (Boston,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.}.  There  is  a 
second  volume  containing  shorter  essays,  chief  among  which  are  (1)  On 
Christian  Education,  (2)  Essay  on  the  Unity  of  Education,  (3)  On  Lib- 
erty of  Teaching. 


THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

for  another  thought.  Such  is  the  law.  It  is  evident  that 
if  one  thought  serves  as  matter,  or  supplies  the  matter, 
for  another  thought,  this  second  thought  cannot  pos- 
sibly arise  until  after  the  first  has  arisen  and  supplied 
the  matter  which  it  requires.  Now,  this  shows  the 
natural  and  necessary  order  of  all  human  thoughts. 

"  All  the  thoughts  that  ever  entered,  or  can  enter,  the 
mind  of  man  are  distributed  and  classified  into  so  many 
different  orders  according  to  this  law.  Those  orders  are: 

"  First,  thoughts  that  do  not  derive  their  matter  from 
previous  thoughts.* 

"  Second,  thoughts  that  derive  their  matter  from 
thoughts  of  the  first  order,  and  from  no  others. 

"  Third,  thoughts  that  derive  their  matter  from 
thoughts  of  the  second  order  (and  so  on).  .  .  . 

"  This  series  of  orders  is  endless;  hence  the  infinite 
development  to  which  the  human  intelligence  is  or- 
dained." ...(§§  75,  76.) 

Having  laid  down  the  law  of  apperception,  Kosmini 
proceeds  to  describe,  and  account  for,  the  different  or- 
ders of  "intellection,"  and  the  volitions  corresponding 
to  them.  He  finds  that  they  may  be  reduced  to  four,  as 
set  forth  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

With  regard  to  this  table  three  things  may  be  noted 
— (1)  that  it  might  be  continued  indefinitely;  (2)  that 
Rosmini  lays  the  same  stress  upon  interest  that  Herbart 
does,  (3)  that  moral  choice  and  life  begin  only  with  the 
fourth  order  of  intellections.  With  respect  to  the  last 
Rosmini  says:  "Mere  appreciative  volition  would  not 
suffice  to  justify  us  in  declaring  that  a  child  had  arrived 

*  Of  course,  the  matter  of  the  earliest  thoughts  consists  of  undiffer- 
entiated  feeling.  The  function  of  thought  is  differentiation. 

16 


242 


THE  HISTOEY   OF  EDUCATION 


ACT  OF  THE  INTKLLECT. 


CORRESPONDING  ACT  OF  THE 
Wiix. 


L  Order.. 
IL  Order.. 

IH.  Order.. 
IV.  Order.. 


Perception  of  the   subsist- 
ent. 

Abstraction  of  the  interest- 
ing sensible  qualities. 


Judgment  regarding  the 
qualities  of  objects,  or 
synthesis,  whereby  it  is  af- 
firmed that  a  given  inter- 
esting quality  is  in  a  given 
subject. 

Comparison  of  two  objects 
already  judged,  and  the 
pronouncing  of  a  third 
judgment,  which  prefers 
the  one  to  the  other — ap- 
preciation. 


Affectional  volition,  directed 
upon  the  subsistent  thing 
as  a  whole. 

Affectional  volition,  directed 
upon  the  sensible  quality 
alone,  good  or  bad  (ab- 
stracted, that  is  sundered 
from  the  other  indifferent 
qualities  of  the  thing). 

Appreciative  volition,  di- 
rected upon  the  object,  in 
so  far  as  the  mind  recog- 
nizes in  it  the  interesting 
quality,  and  so  appreciates 
it. 

Appreciative  volition,  pref- 
erence, choice  between  two 
objects  (§  333). 


at  the  use  of  its  freedom.  ...  If  the  appreciation 
and  the  consequent  choice  relate  to  things  belonging  to 
the  material  order,  or  even  to  merely  intellectual  things, 
there  may  be  choice,  and  yet  no  freedom.  This  begins 
to  manifest  itself,  the  first  time  that  a  man  begins  to 
compare  the  moral  order  with  the  other,  inferior  orders; 
the  first  time  he  has  to  choose  between  the  performance 
of  his  own  duty  and  his  own  pleasure,  or  the  satisfaction 
of  his  accidental  instinct. 

"But  this  first  time  occurs  just  at  the  fourth  order 
of  intellections.  The  collision  between  alluring  things 
and  his  duty  takes  place  as  soon  as  he  knows  a  positive 
will  that  opposes  his  natural  inclinations.  Now  this 
will  is  known  to  him  at  the  fourth  order."  (§  334.) 

It  is  impossible  here  to  enter  into  the  details  of  Eos- 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY        243 

mini's  method;  but  perhaps  enough  has  been  said  to 
show  that  it  contributes  an  important  addition  to  the 
work  of  Herbart  and  Froebel.*  His  Pedagogy  rests  upon 
an  entire  philosophic  system  of  marvellous  extent  and 
subtlety,  a  system  which  seeks,  by  combining  Scholas- 
ticism with  modern  thought,  to  furnish  a  rational  basis 
for  catholic  theology.  Though  this  fact  necessarily 
hampers  him,  he  must  yet  count  as  one  of  the  ablest 
thinkers  of  the  century,  perhaps  the  very  ablest.  He 
was  well  acquainted  with  modern  thought,  and  strove 
to  be  just  to  it.f  His  life  was  that  of  a  saint. 

Herbart,  Froebel,  Kosmini — by  these  three  men  the 
foundations  of  modern  education  for  rational  liberty 
were  securely  laid.  Each  had  his  defects;  each  paid  his 
tribute  to  an  un vanquished  past;  but  the  defects  are 
such  as  time  and  experience  are  certain  to  remove,  as 
the  tribute  to  the  past  ceases  to  be  paid.  We  can  now 
clearly  see,  and  all  true  educators  do  see,  that  education 
is  conscious  evolution  of  the  entire  human  being  through 
ever  closer  relations,  intellectual,  affectional  and  ethical, 
to  the  entire  universe,  human  and  subhuman.  The  only 
question  that  remains  is:  How  can  these  relations  be 
most  readily  and  most  securely  established?  Even  this 
question  is  already  partly  answered,  and  will  be  more 
fully  answered  in  the  future. 

If  space  permitted,  it  would  be  interesting  to  follow 
the  spread  of  the  new  education  in  different  countries, 

*It  borrows  much  from  the  Protestant  Mme.  Necker  de  Saussnre 
(1765-1841),  who  again  owes  much  to  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi.  Her 
work,  IS  Education  Progressive,  ou  Etude  dn  Conrs  de  la  Nature  Hu- 
maine  (1836-38,  3  vols. ),  is  one  of  the  sanest  works  on  education  ever 
written,  well  deserving  more  attention  than  can  here  be  given  it. 

t  As  a  consequence,  forty  of  his  tenets  were  recently  condemned  by 
the  Church,  as  savoring  of  heresy. 


244  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

and  to  see  how  it  has  everywhere  affected  the  individual 
and  social  life;  but  we  must  confine  ourselves  to  its 
progress  in  the  United  States,  in  which  perhaps  it  has 
celebrated  its  noblest  triumphs.  For  this  the  credit  is 
due,  in  very  large  measure,  to  Horace  Mann. 

The  first  Europeans  who  came  to  settle  in  North 
America  were  people  of  considerable  cultivation,  peo- 
ple who  had  reaped  the  fruits  of  the  Reformation  and 
the  Eenaissance.  They  were  pious,  and  they  loved  learn- 
ing, especially  such  as  might  enable  them  correctly  to 
interpret  the  Book  in  which  they  found  the  matter  and 
guarantee  of  their  faith.  This  was  especially  true  of 
the  colonists  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  who  very  early  in 
their  history  established  a  system  of  public  schools,*  of 
three  grades — primary,  secondary  and  collegiate.  Their 
example  was  followed,  in  some  degree,  by  the  other  col- 
onies, and  for  a  time  all  went  well.  But  in  proportion 
as  the  colonists  were  removed  in  feeling  from  the  cult- 
ured social  medium  of  the  old  country,  and  turned  their 
attention  to  their  own  immediate  needs,  mostly  of  a 
material  sort,  interest  in  culture  and  education  gradually 
died  out.  A  most  competent  authority  has  said  that, 
for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  nothing  deserving  the 
name  of  literature  was  produced  in  America.  From 
about  1680,  the  schools,  being  unprovided  with  state 
funds,  and  left  to  the  tender  mercies  of  towns  or,  later, 
of  school-districts,  deteriorated  more  and  more,  until  at 
last,  before  the  Eevolution,  many  members  of  good 
families  could  hardly  write  their  own  names.  The  Eevo- 

*  The  Boston  Latin  School  was  founded.  1635 ;  Harvard  College,  1636 ; 
compulsory  primary  schools,  1643.  In  1647  there  were  in  Massachusetts 
eight  Latin  (or  grammar)  schools.  "Grammar"  and  "Latin"  were  at 
that  time  synonymous  terms,  as  they  are  now  in  Scotland. 


THE  NINETEENTH   CENTUKY  245 

lution  brought  but  little  improvement.  The  people  of 
that  time  had  other  things  than  education  to  think 
about.  In  the  first  third  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
things  went  from  bad  to  worse.  "  Previous  to  1826, 
there  were  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  towns  in  the 
State  [of  Massachusetts]  that  were  required  to  main- 
tain schools  in  which  Greek  and  Latin  were  taught;  the 
legislature  of  that  year  removed  the  obligations  from  all 
these  but  seven,  and  the  seven  were  all  maritime  towns. 
Nor  was  Latin  much  taught  in  the  schools  that  pro- 
fessed to  teach  it.  The  ancient  and  honorable  name 
*  grammar  school '  now  disappeared  from  the  Massachu- 
setts statute  book,  and  the  name  '  high  school '  took 
its  place.  Verily  the  State  had  found  the  descent  to 
Avernus  an  easy  one!  The  people  of  Massachusetts 
seemed  almost  as  anxious  to  get  rid  of  their  schools  as 
their  ancestors  had  been  to  get  them."  *  So  far  did 
this  deterioration  of  the  public  schools  go  that,  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  private  academies 
began  to  grow  up.  As  these  were  attended  mainly,  if 
not  wholly,  by  the  children  of  well-to-do  people,  they 
helped  to  draw  between  rich  and  poor  a  line  most  fatal 
to  democracy.  At  the  same  time,  they  did  good  work 
and  helped  to  raise  the  standard  of  education,  especially 
in  the  colleges.  In  the  southern  states  wealthy  families 
sent  their  children,  for  higher  education,  to  Europe. 

It  is  hard  for  a  dependent  colony  ever  to  take  an  in- 
dependent stand  in  anything.  Hence,  it  was  not  till 
jlter  the  United  States  had  achieved  their  independence, 
and  settled  down  to  consider  what  the  new  nation  was 

*Hinsdale,  Horace  Mann  and  the  Common  School  Revival  in  the 
United  States  ("  Great  Educators"  jeries),  p.  17. 


246  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

to  represent,  that  people  turned  their  attention  again 
to  public  education.  At  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  education  was  pretty  generally  diffused  among 
the  people  of  the  northern  and  western  states;  but  it 
was  of  a  low  order,  seldom  going  beyond  "  the  three 
E's."  Legislatures  passed  generous  enactments  in  re- 
gard to  it;  public  lands  were  set  apart,  in  the  new  states, 
for  its  maintenance;  but  there  existed  no  ideal  of  edu- 
cation; the  teachers  were  mostly  poor,  and  their  meth- 
ods crude.  Primary  education  was  imparted  chiefly  in 
"  dame's  schools,"  most  of  which  were  poor  enough. 
The  movement  in  favor  of  realistic  education,  due  to 
Eousseau  and  Pestalozzi,  had  not  reached  these  shores. 
In  truth,  American  intellectual  life  had  not  begun: 
America  did  not  understand  herself. 

It  was  toward  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  that  the  quickening  of  intellectual  life, 
and  interest  in  culture  movements,  began.  Then  a  sort 
of  spiritual  spring,  calling  every  hibernating  thing  to 
new  life,  broke  over  America.  Literature  began  to  re- 
vive; art  put  in  a  timid,  childlike  appearance;  philos- 
ophy glided  in  gently  and  somnambulistically,  in  the 
night-gown  of  Neo-Platonism  or  Transcendentalism; 
Utopian  theories  of  Arcadian  social  orders  fluttered 
down  from  a  clear  sky,  like  a  swarm  of  blue  butterflies; 
and,  finally,  education,  which  was  to  transform  all  these, 
in  view  of  new  conditions  and  new  ideals,  showed  its 
earnest  face. 

From  early  in  the  century,  advocates  of  popular  edu- 
cation had  not  been  wanting;*  but  the  first  man  who 
fully  understood  the  needs  of  the  nation,  and  undertook 

*On  Horace  Mann's  predecessors,  see  Hinsdale,  ut  sup.,  pp.  46-74. 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTUKY        247 

to  meet  them  in  large,  practical  ways,  was  Horace 
Mann,*  to  whom  American  culture  owes  more  than  to 
any  other  person.  He  was  exactly  the  influence  needed 
by  the  nation  in  her  hour  of  spiritual  awakening. 

Unlike  Herbart,  Frcebel,  and  Eosmini,  who  were  edu- 
cational philosophers,  Horace  Mann  was  distinctly  a 
practical  man.  What  educational  theories  he  had  were 
chiefly  drawn  from  George  Combe's  Constitution  of  Man, 
in  which  phrenology  plays  a  large  part.  He  was  more 
like  Pestalozzi,  with  all  Pestalozzi's  human  sympathy, 
democratic  interest,  and  moral  enthusiasm,  but  with  a 
practical  sense  and  a  talent  for  organizing  which  were 
lacking  in  the  older  man.  He  saw  what  the  people 
needed,  if  they  were  to  be  raised  out  of  ignorance, 
degradation,  and  misery,  and  remain  faithful  to  the 
democratic  ideas  of  the  Puritans.  First  of  all,  the  sys- 
tem of  public  education,  initiated  by  the  Puritans,  but 
now  fallen  into  decay,  must  be  restored,  and  the  un- 
democratic tendencies  of  private  academies  neutralized. 
But  the  restored  system  must  be  so  modified  as  to  meet 
the  new  conditions  that  had  arisen  in  the  course  of  two 
hundred  years.  To  these  tasks  he  set  himself  with  all 
the  energy  and  enthusiasm  of  his  nature. 

His  appointment  to  the  secretaryship  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Board  of  Education,  an  office  which  he  held 
for  twelve  years,  gave  him  just  the  opportunity  he 
needed  and  desired  to  bring  the  state  of  education,  with 

*  Born  at  Franklin,  Massachusetts,  1796 ;  repelled  by  Calvinism, 
1806;  attends  Brown  University.  1816-19;  tutor  at  Brown,  1819-21; 
studies  law  at  Lichfield,  Connecticut,  1821-23;  practises  law,  1823-27; 
State  representative  in  Massachusetts,  1837-33  ;  senator,  1833-37 ;  secre- 
tary of  the  newly  appointed  Board  of  Education,  1 837-48 ;  member  of 
U.  S.  Congress,  1848-52 ;  president  of  Antioch  College,  1853-59 ;  dies, 
August  2, 1859.  See  Hinsdale,  Horace  Mann,  and  Life  and  Works  of 
Horace  Mann,  by  Mrs.  Mann. 


248  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

suggestions  of  reform,  before  the  public.  The  board  it- 
self had  no  executive  power;  but  it  could  give  informa- 
tion and  advice,  not  only  to  the  legislature,  but  to  all 
the  world.  The  secretary  made  up  his  mind  that  it 
should  not  be  merely  ornamental,  but  in  the  highest 
degree  useful.  So  he  set  out  to  collect  facts  and  statis- 
tics of  all  sorts,  and  to  consider  projects  of  educational 
reform,  and  these  he  embodied  in  his  famous  twelve 
annual  Eeports,  which  must  count  among  educational 
classics.  A  summary  of  the  contents  of  these  reports 
will  show  us  the  range  of  his  activity,  and  the  nature  of 
his  projects. 

Report  I.  (1837)  relates  to  (1)  school-houses,*  (2) 
school-committees,  (3)  popular  feeling  toward  the  com- 
mon schools,  (4)  teachers.  In  all  these  he  finds  much  to 
criticise.  The  school-houses  are  poor  and  squalid;  the 
committees  frequently  perform  their  duty  in  a  perfunc- 
tory way,  giving  places  to  inefficient  teachers,  failing 
to  visit  the  schools,  and  to  see  that  they  are  duly  at- 
tended. The  common  schools  are  becoming  schools  for 
the  poor,  while  the  rich  are  sending  their  children  to 
private  schools.  The  teachers  are  poor  and  poorly  paid: 
many  of  them  take  to  teaching  merely  as  a  temporary 
expedient.  They  give  no  moral  instruction,  keep  no 
registers,  etc. 

Report  II.  (1838)  touches  on  the  general  "  unsound- 
ness  and  debility  "  of  the  schools,  but  is  mostly  devoted 
to  the  subjects  of  spelling  and  reading,  in  which  im- 
provements are  suggested. 

Report  III.  (1839)  deals  mainly  with  the  question  of 

*  These  were  treated  specially  in  a  supplementary  report,  which  soon 
followed  the  other. 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY        249 

school  libraries,  and  their  value  as  adjuncts  to  the 
schools. 

Eeport  IV.  (1840)  is  occupied  with  the  evils  attend- 
ing the  district-school  system,  the  needless  multiplica- 
tion of  small,  poorly  taught,  and  ungraded  schools,  the 
qualifications  of  teachers,  the  attendance  of  pupils,  and 
the  relations  of  the  parents  to  the  schools. 

Eeport  V.  (1841)  endeavors  to  show  "the  effect  of 
education  upon  the  worldly  fortune  and  estates  of  men." 
It  is  found  to  be  of  great  economic  value,  and  therefore 
may  justly  call  for  large  expenditure.  It  is  not  merely 
ornamental. 

Eeport  VI.  (1842)  insists  upon  the  study  of  Physi- 
ology, and  other  practical  subjects  in  schools,  in  prefer- 
ence to  subjects  having  little  or  no  immediate  use  in 
daily  life. 

Eeport  VII.  (1843)  gives  an  account  of  the  author's 
visit  to  the  schools  of  Europe — Great  Britain,  Germany, 
Holland,  Belgium,  France  (Paris) — made  in  that  year. 
He  saw  much  that  interested  him  and,  especially  in  Ger- 
many, much  that  he  thought  might  be  profitably  adopted 
at  home — normal  schools,  oral  instruction,  etc.  One 
thing  he  strongly  disliked,  the  use  of  the  public  schools 
for  the  support  of  the  State-religion. 

Eeport  VIII.  (1844)  deals  with  recent  improvements 
in  the  public  schools,  their  growing  republicanism,  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  female  teachers,  teachers'  in- 
stitutes, the  use  of  the  Bible  in  schools,  etc. 

Eeport  IX.  (1845)  deals  with  the  apportionment  of 
school  funds,  the  means  for  doing  away  with  school 
vices,  etc.,  and  ends  with  an  account  of  Pestalozzi's 
method  of  teaching. 


250  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

Eeport  X.  (1846)  treats  of  the  history  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts public  schools,  and  shows  that  the  narrow  puri- 
tanical, and  merely  protestant,  basis  upon  which  they 
originally  stood  must  be  abandoned,  and  that  their  scope 
must  be  widened  so  as  to  include  all  the  children  of  the 
commonwealth,  whose  property  is  pledged  for  their 
moral  and  civic  education.  Again,  as  in  Eeport  IV.,  he 
condemns  the  school-district  system. 

Eeport  XI.  (1847)  discusses  the  value,  for  social  and 
moral  character,  of  a  common  school  education,  and 
contains  the  replies  of  experienced  teachers  to  a  circular 
making  inquiries  on  this  subject. 

Eeport  XII.  (1848),  in  which  Horace  Mann  takes 
leave  of  the  Board  of  Education,  considers  "  The  Ca- 
pacities of  our  Present  School  System  to  Improve  the 
Pecuniary  Condition  and  to  Elevate  the  Intellectual 
and  Moral  Character  of  the  Commonwealth,"  and  gives 
reasons  for  the  reformatory  and  critical  course  pursued 
by  the  secretary.* 

A  glance  at  this  meagre  summary  will  show  how  com- 
pletely Horace  Mann  had  grasped  the  problem,  not 
merely  of  civic,  but  also  of  human,  education,  and  how 
clearly  he  understood  how  it  was  to  be  practically  solved. 
The  following  are  the  points  upon  which  he  laid  special 
emphasis: 

(1)  Education  in  a  democracy  should  be  public  and 
extend  equally  to  all  classes  of  the  population.  The 
public  schools  ought  to  be  good  enough  for  the  best, 
so  that  there  should  be  no  inducement  for  the  rich  to 
send  their  children  to  private  schools,  and  so  separate 
them  from  those  of  the  poor.  Freedom  from  caste. 

*  Abridged  from  Hinsdale's  Horace  Mann,  pp.  160-80. 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY        251 

(2)  Education  should  rest  upon  science,  and  not  upon 
authority.    It  should  bring  children  into  direct  contact 
with  the  facts  of  nature  and  culture,  and  allow  them, 
as  far  as  possible,  to  make  their  own  inductions.    The 
method  of  Pestalozzi  is  the  true  one.    Horace  Mann  says 
nothing  of  Herbart,  Froebel,  or  Eosmini. 

(3)  Education  should  encourage  true  religion;  but  it 
should  be  free  from  sectarian  bias,  and  the  sects  should 
not,  as  such,  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  it.    Freedom 
from  supernaturalism.* 

(4)  Education  should  be  a  preparation  for  life,  do- 
mestic, economic,  social,  political,  and  not  merely  the 
acquisition  of  curious  learning,  elegant  scholarship,  or 
showy  accomplishments.    Its  end  should  be  the  attain- 
ment of  moral  and  social  personality. 

(5)  Education  should  be  imparted  with  gentleness 
and  with  due  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  child.     All 
violence,  and  all  corporal  punishment,  should,  as  far 
as  possible,  be  avoided. 

(6)  Education  should  be  conducted  in  well-built,  well- 
ventilated  school-houses,  supplied  with  good  libraries, 
and  all  apparatus  necessary  for  effective  teaching  accord- 
ing to  the  new  method. 

(7)  Education  should  be  in  the  hands  of  thoroughly 
trained  and  competent  teachers,  making  teaching  their 
profession,  and  to  this  end  there  should  be  established 
Normal  Schools  for  their  special  training.     American 
Normal  Schools  owe  their  existence  to  Horace  Mann. 

(8)  The  schools  should  be  open  to  girls,  as  well  as 

*  Horace  Mann  had  a  hard  struggle  with  sectarianism  before  he  was 
able  to  banish  it  from  the  schools  ;  but  he  finally  succeeded,  and,  in  doing 
BO,  he  wrested  education  from  the  hands  of  Authority,  and  placed  it  in 
those  of  Science. 


252  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

boys,*  and  the  profession  of  teacher  to  women,  as  well 
as  to  men. 

(9)  Teachers  should  have  frequent  opportunities  of 
meeting  for  discussion  and  mutual  encouragement  in 
institutes  and  conventions. 

(10)  To  make  possible  all  these  things,  the  State 
should  spare  no  expense,  but  should  consider  its  prop- 
erty a  trust  for  the  education  of  its  citizens. 

On  some  of  these  points  Horace  Mann  may  have  laid 
too  much  stress,  and  in  some  he  may  have  been  mis- 
taken. His  notions  of  "  practical  education  "  may  have 
been  too  narrow;  his  belief  in  the  value  of  Normal 
Schools  may  have  been  exaggerated.  But,  taken  as  a 
whole,  his  ideas  concerning  the  education  required  by 
American  democracy  and  by  humanity  were  correct,  and 
the  methods  by  which  he  sought  to  realize  them  valid. 
Nothing  can  be  a  better  proof  of  this  than  the  fact  that 
all  the  reforms  advocated  by  him  have  already  been,  in 
large  part  at  least,  realized,  with  excellent  effect.  State 
education  of  a  high  order  has  become  all  but  universal; 
more  and  more  it  rests  upon  science  and  the  Pestalozzian 
method;  dogmatic  teaching  is  almost  excluded  from  it; 
its  chief  aim  is  to  fit  for  the  great  relations  of  life;  it 
more  and  more  follows  gentle  and  humane  methods; 
school  buildings  are  improved  beyond  what  he  would 
have  dared  to  hope;  Normal  Schools  have  been  estab- 
lished in  large  numbers,  and  have  supplied  the  States 
and  cities  with  competent  teachers;  all  the  advantages 
of  State  education  are  open  to  both  sexes  equally;  the 

*  Not  till  1789  were  girls  admitted  to  the  public  schools  of  Boston, 
and  even  then  not  along  with  the  boys.  For  a  specimen  of  a  girls' 
school-mistress  of  the  early  part  of  the  century,  see  the  Journey  of  Mrs. 
Anne  Knigiit. 


THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  '253 

vast  majority  of  teachers  are  women;  teachers'  insti- 
tutes and  conventions  are  almost  innumerable;  com- 
pared with  the  sums  spent  on  education  by  the  United 
States,  those  spent  by  other  countries  almost  dwindle 
into  insignificance.  It  may  be  fairly  said  that  Horace 
Mann  is  the  father  of  American  education. 

But  that  education  is  already  far  beyond  him.  Kin- 
dergartens, of  which  he  never  dreamt,  are  springing  up 
everywhere,  and  setting  the  example  of  the  true  method 
of  education.  "  Child-study "  is  becoming  a  science. 
Schools,  colleges,  and  universities  come  into  existence 
as  if  by  magic.  Already  the  country  possesses  more  in- 
stitutions of  higher  learning  than  the  whole  of  Europe. 
The  colleges  for  women  are  more  numerous  than  col- 
leges for  men  were  at  the  beginning  of  the  century. 
Nay,  all  the  more  enlightened  of  the  latter  are  opening 
their  doors  to  women.*  And  so  on. 

Thus,  there  is  every  reason  to  look  with  satisfaction, 
pride,  and  hope  upon  the  condition  and  spirit  of  edu- 
cation in  the  United  States.  It  is  democratic;  it  is 
scientific,  rapidly  shaking  off  the  fetters  of  authority 
and  dogma;  it  is  free  from  sectarian  bias  and  confusion; 
above  all,  it  educates  for  freedom,  and  not  for  subordi- 
nation. It  is  the  highest  type,  thus  far,  of  human  edu- 
cation. Other  countries,  despite  numerous  obstacles, 
are  gradually  imitating  it,  without,  in  any  marked  de- 
gree, contributing  to  its  evolution.  Of  what  it  has  yet 
to  do  in  the  way  of  improvement,  we  shall  see  something 
in  the  next  chapter,  f 

*  Oberlin  was  the  first  to  do  so ;  under  Horace  Mann,  Antioch  did  BO 
from  the  first,  making  the  course  identical  for  the  two  sexes,  as  Oberlin 
had  not  done. 

t  It  may  perhaps  seem  strange  that  I  say  nothing  of  Herbert  Spencer's 
work  on  Education ;  but  the  fact  is  I  find  nothing  original  in  it  that 
seems  to  me  true,  while  its  ethical  principles  are  distinctly  objectionable. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    OUTLOOK 

The  first  of  all  blessings  is  not  authority,  but  liberty.  This  is 
my  fundamental  maxim. — ROTTSSEAU. 

I  think  there  is  something  scientific  destined  to  become  popular ; 
and  it  is  all  that  pertains  to  truth. — ROSMINI. 

The  study  of  the  duties  of  citizenship  ought  to  be  the  foundation 
of  all  other  studies. — TURGOT. 

The  property  of  this  commonwealth  is  pledged  for  the  education 
of  all  its  youth  up  to  such  a  point  as  will  save  them  from  poverty 
and  vice,  and  prepare  them  for  the  adequate  performance  of  their 
social  and  civil  duties. — HORACE  MANN. 

The  successive  holders  of  this  property  are  trustees  bound  to  the 
faithful  execution  of  their  trust  by  the  most  sacred  obligations,  and 
embezzlement  and  pillage  from  children  and  descendants  have  not 
less  of  criminality,  and  have  more  of  meanness,  than  the  same 
offence  when  perpetrated  against  contemporaries. — Id. 

I  by  no  means  approve  of  those  schools  in  which  a  child  used  to 
spend  twenty  or  thirty  years  over  Donatus  or  Alexander  [of  Aphro- 
disias],  without  learning  anything.  A  new  world  has  dawned  in 
which  things  go  differently.  My  opinion  is  that  we  must  send  boys 
to  school  one  or  two  hours  a  day,  and  have  them  learn  a  trade  at 
home  the  rest  of  the  time.  It  is  desirable  that  these  two  occupa- 
tions go  side  by  side.  At  present  children  certainly  spend  twice  as 
much  time  playing  ball,  running  the  streets,  and  playing  truant.  And 
so  girls  might  equally  well  devote  nearly  the  same  time  to  school, 
without  neglecting  their  home  duties ;  they  waste  more  time  than  that 
in  over-sleeping,  and  in  dancing  more  than  is  proper.* — LUTHER. 

*  Quoted  by  Compayre,  Hist,  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  119  sq.  (Eng.  Trans.). 
254 


THE   OUTLOOK  255 

The  democratic  system  of  education  gives  every  man  the  freest 
opportunity  to  become  in  the  fullest  measure  all  for  which  nature 
has  fitted  him. — CHARLES  W.  DABNEY,  in  the  Forum  for  February, 
1900,  p.  664. 

We  have  now  briefly  traced  the  course  of  education 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day,  and  seen  that 
it  is  conscious  evolution,  separated  by  no  clear  line  of 
demarcation  from  unconscious  evolution,  in  which  the 
whole  subhuman  world  is  engaged.  We  have  seen  it 
begin  in  supernaturalism  and  authority,  and,  by  a  slow 
and  difficult  process,  rise  to  nature  and  freedom.  It  has 
grown  with  the  growth  of  practical  intelligence,  and 
has  in  all  cases  been  a  preparation  for  life  under  exist- 
ing institutions.  Where  tyranny  has  prevailed,  it  has 
educated  for  tyranny  and  thraldom;  where  freedom  has 
been  won,  it  has  educated  for  freedom.  At  first  confined 
to  a  few  favored  men,  chiefly  occupied  with  the  super- 
natural, it  has  gradually  extended  its  blessings  to  greater 
and  greater  numbers,  until  in  the  United  States,  it  is 
practically  universal.* 

Here  much  has  been  done  that  deserves  the  highest 
commendation-;  but  much  yet  remains  to  be  done,  and 
perhaps  we  cannot  more  fitly  close  this  book  than  by 
attempting  to  point  out  the  improvements  that  must  be 
made,  before  education  can  fully  meet  the  needs  of  a 
great  democracy  that  means  to  last  and  to  retain  its  own 
and  others'  respect.  These  improvements  relate  to  (1) 
the  being  to  be  educated,  (2)  the  aim  of  education,  (3) 
its  matter,  (4)  its  method,  (5)  its  extent,  (6)  its  teachers. 

*It  is  so  in  several  other  countries,  Germany,  Holland,  Scotland,  etc.; 
but  we  must  confine  ourselves  to  the  United  States.  England,  strange  to 
say,  long  remained  sadly  behind  in  the  matter  of  education.  Her  public- 
school  system  dates  from  1870.  It  is  still  struggling  against  sectarianism. 


256  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

(1)  "  Child-study  "  has  already  made  considerable  ad- 
vance; but  it  has,  so  far,  confined  itself  to  inquiring 
into  the  faculties  of  the  child  and  the  best  means  of 
developing  them.  There  is  still  much  to  do  even  in 
these  directions;  but  there  is  everything  to  do  with 
reference  to  the  more  fundamental  questions:  What  is 
the  child?  Is  it  a  mere  cluster  of  ephemeral  feelings 
and  desires  which  will  perish  with  the  dissolution  of  the 
body,  or  is  it  an  eternal  being,  with  an  infinite  task,  a 
being  to  which  the  body  is  a  mere  temporary  instrument, 
a  special  cluster  of  phenomena?  Those  who  still  cling 
to  the  old  supernaturalism  and  authority,  usually  accept 
the  latter  view;  those  who  do  not,  for  the  most  part 
adopt  the  former,  or  quietly  ignore  the  question  alto- 
gether. Both  parties  assume  that  it  is  insoluble  by  sci- 
ence, and,  hence,  those  who  insist  upon  an  answer  are 
referred  to  authority,  which  is  thus  enabled  to  retain 
its  hold  upon  many. 

Now,  it  is  surely  little  short  of  irrational  to  spend 
time  and  energy  in  educating  a  being  whose  nature  and 
destiny  we  do  not  know.  Being  ignorant  of  these,  how 
can  we  know  that  all  our  efforts  are  not  vain,  or  even 
hurtful?  Many  a  pious  saint,  even  St.  Augustine,  has 
believed  that  "  the  uneducated  carry  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,"  *  and,  indeed,  this  was  the  prevailing  view 
throughout  the  Middle  Age.  The  answer  usually  is: 
The  fact,  in  any  case,  is  so:  we  do  not,  and  cannot,  know 
man's  nature  and  destiny,  and  must,  therefore,  be  con- 
tent "  to  guess  and  opine,"  f  and  then  do  the  best  we 
can.  But  this  is  surely  a  most  disheartening  attitude. 

*  See  p.  126,  and  cf.  the  words  of  Jesus,  Matthew  XL  25. 
t  "  Wir  konnen  nur  rathen  und  meinen." — Schiller. 


THE   OUTLOOK  257 

Fortunately,  it  is  not  a  necessary  one,  and  it  is  only  our 
servile  dependence  upon  authority  and  our  mental  sloth 
that  make  us  content  with  it.  A  careful  study  of  the 
human  spirit  and  its  activities  can  leave  no  doubt  that 
these  are  eternal  in  their  very  nature,  superior  to  time, 
space,  and  causation,  and,  therefore,  free.  At  all  events, 
the  subject  is  one  that  calls  for  the  profoundest  study 
on  the  part  of  educators.  Until  they  reach  clearness 
with  regard  to  it,  they  can  never  be  sure  that  they  are 
doing  anything  right.* 

(2)  The  aim  of  education  is,  as  we  have  seen,  world- 
building,  the  construction,  in  the  child's  consciousness, 
of  such  a  world  as  shall  furnish  him  with  motives  to 
live  an  enlightened,  kindly,  helpful,  and  noble  social 
life,f  a  life  not  stagnant,  but  ever  advancing.  Now, 
this  aim  is  at  present  far  from  being  attained.  The 
worlds  which  our  education,  thus  far,  has  constructed 
in  children's  souls  are,  in  very  large  degree,  fragmentary, 
fanciful,  and  distorted,  made  up  of  pieces  of  science, 
interspersed  with  remnants  of  superstition,  and  gaudy 
contributions  from  fancy.  Little  attempt  has  been  made 
to  realize  in  them  the  unitary  world  of  evolution,  re- 
vealed by  science  and  interpreted  by  philosophy.  And 
yet  that  is  the  supreme  task  of  education.  Only  when 
it  is  accomplished  can  men  live  a  rational,  open-eyed 

*  If  we  wish  to  see  what  life  would  become,  even  among  cultivated 
men,  when  the  belief  in  immortality  was  dismissed,  we  may  read  the 
Quatrains  (Ruba'iyyat)  of  Omar  Khayyam,  now  so  much  admired  by 
thoughtless  people.  Of.  I.  Corinth.  XV.  32 ;  Goethe,  Faust,  Pt.  I.,  the 
Wager-scene:  Tennyson,  In  Mernoriam,  XXXV. 

tit  is  needless  to  say  that  the  world  which  furnishes  a  man's  motives 
is  the  world  which  he  has  built  up  in  his  own  soul.  If  it  is  mean,  or 
foul,  or  fragmentary,  or  distorted,  so  will  his  life  be.  Compare  Hamlet's 
world  (Act  II.,  Scene  1)  with  Faust's  (Pt.  II.,  Act  I.,  opening),  and  see 
the  respective  results. 

17 


258  THE  HISTOEY   OF  EDUCATION 

life,  with  lofty  aims,  and  confidence  in  the  possibility 
of  reaching  them.  The  first  condition  of  all  truly  moral, 
reason-guided  life,  is  a  true  world-view  (Weltanschau- 
ung)', for  reason  is  nothing  but  the  order  of  the  world, 
and  moral  life  is  a  life  in  accordance  with  that  order. 
Nature-study,  as  against  text-study,  is  the  educational 
watchword  of  the  day,  and  it  is  well;  but  nature  must 
be  made  to  include  culture,*  and  the  whole  regarded 
as  one,  coherent  universe-process  of  interacting  spirits 
advancing  to  ever  higher  attainments.  The  imparting 
of  the  whole  is  the  task  of  the  educator. 

(3)  The  matter  of  education  is  the  entire  universe, 
as  knowable,  lovable,  modifiable.  To  master  this  mat- 
ter, in  all  its  details,  even  if  it  were  within  our  reach, 
is  beyond  the  power  of  any  one  mind.  We  cannot, 
therefore,  complain,  if  education  makes  no  attempt  to 
impart  it.  But  the  general  scheme  of  evolution,  and 
of  the  relations  of  its  different  phases  and  agents  to  it 
and  to  .each  other,  is  capable  of  being  grasped,  and 
should  be  imparted  by  education.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  every  one  should  know  all  the  details  of  astronomy, 
mineralogy,  chemistry,  biology,  or  sociology;  but  every 
one  should  know  the  fundamental  principles  and  spheres 
.of  these,  and  of  all  other  sciences,  as  well  as  their  re- 
lations to  each  other  in  the  evolutionary  process.  He 
should,  moreover,  know  how  to  interpret  the  whole  in 
terms  of  experience,  and  thus  to  escape  the  pitfalls  of 
agnosticism  and  dogmatism.  Now,  education  at  pres- 
ent is  very  far  from  having  realized  this  ideal.  It  seems 
to  make  no  attempt  to  impart  a  total  view  of  the  world, 
in  its  three  aspects,  as  the  condition  of  rational  life.  In 

*  See  my  Rousseau,  pp.  8,  9. 


THE  OUTLOOK  259 

all  respects  its  work  is  fragmentary.  It  imparts  no 
connected  knowledge  of  the  universe;  it  does  not  seek 
to  arrange  things  and  processes  in  the  order  of  their 
desirability,  that  is,  of  their  value  for  spiritual  ends;  it 
does  not  show  by  what  means  the  will  can  gradually 
modify  the  world,  in  order  to  make  it  more  subservient 
to  the  purposes  of  spirit.  Thus,  children  are  not  taught 
to  identify  themselves,  in  any  way,  with  the  great  world, 
and  so  they  miss  the  wonderful  inspiration  that  comes 
from  such  identification.  The  world  remains  to  them 
a  mass  of  particulars,  whose  interconnection  and  co- 
operation they  do  not  see,  and  so  they  stand  before  the 
great  all-embracing  drama  of  evolution  without  com- 
prehending it,  or  recognizing  their  own  place  in  it.  Is 
it  any  wonder  that  the  world  is  uninteresting,  and  life 
undramatic,  narrow,  and  dreary,  to  so  many  people? 

There  is,  at  the  present  day,  a  great  deal  of  popular 
talk  about  making  education  "  practical,"  which  in  most 
cases  means  that  it  should  be  mostly  confined  to  such 
instruction  as  shall  enable  people  to  make  a  competent 
living.  But  surely,  "life  is  more  than  food,  and  the 
body  than  raiment."  What  are  the  necessities,  or  even 
the  material  luxuries,  of  life,  if  life  itself  be  narrow, 
with  no  outlook  upon  the  great  drama  of  existence,  no 
interest  in  the  great  movements  of  history?  The  effort 
to  elevate  the  so-called  lower  classes,  by  trying,  through 
socialism,  paternal  legislation,  and  similar  questionable 
means,  to  secure  their  material  comfort,  implies  a  com- 
plete misunderstanding  of  human  nature.  Give  peo- 
ple, first,  large,  comprehensive  views  of  life,  with  the 
inspiration  that  comes  from  them,  and  material  com- 
forts will  take  care  of  themselves.  One  intelligent 


260  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

glimpse  of  the  drama  of  life  will  quench  all  desire  for 
the  pleasures  of  the  dive  and  the  prize-ring.  In  our 
endeavor  to  feed  men's  bodies,  we  starve  their  souls,  and 
make  them  hanker  after  the  husks  that  the  swine  eat. 
The  most  truly  practical  education  is  that  which  im- 
parts the  most  numerous  and  the  strongest  motives  to 
noble  action,  which  creates  the  most  splendid  world  of 
thought,  love,  and  beneficence  in  the  human  soul.  Men 
are  weak,  sinful,  and  poor  because  they  lack  motives 
to  be  otherwise.  Let  education  give  them  these  motives, 
and  weakness,  sin,  and  poverty  will  vanish  from  the 
earth. 

(4)  Though  very  much  has  been  done  in  the  last 
half  century  to  improve  the  methods  of  education,  and 
though,  thanks  to  Herbart,  Froebel,  and  Eosmini,  the 
true  method  has  been  discovered,  yet  much  of  our  edu- 
cation still  follows  the  old  methods,  or  no  method  at 
all.  Indeed,  the  fundamental  question  with  regard  to 
method  is  rarely  asked,  much  less  answered.  That  ques- 
tion is:  How,  and  in  what  order,  shall  the  activities  of 
the  human  being  be  evoked,  so  that  it  may  differentiate 
itself  into  a  rich,  harmonious  world,  and  thus  rise  to  a 
large,  moral  life?  The  kindergarten  does  its  best  to 
give  a  practical  answer;  but  even  here,  as  we  have  seen, 
there  is  much  to  be  desired;*  whereas  the  higher  schools, 
for  the  most  part,  ignore  the  question  altogether,  and 
go  on,  in  their  old  fragmentary  way,  without  any  thought 
of  the  world  that  will  result  from  their  work:  nay,  most 
of  them  are  still  weighted  with  mediaeval  methods  and 

*  See  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Some  Defects  of  the  Kindergarten  in  America, 
in  the  forum,  January,  1900,  pp.  559  sqq. 


THE   OUTLOOK  261 

ideals,*  or  make  it  their  chief  aim  to  fit  for  professional 
life.  Far  too  little  attention  is  paid  to  Eosmini's  grades 
of  "  intellection,"  and  their  correlation  with  acts  of  vo- 
lition. Though  there  is  much  talk  of  the  "  correlation 
of  studies,"  it  is  rarely  carried  on  in  view  of  the  end  of 
all  study,  and  hence  reaches  no  definite  conclusion.  The 
truth  is,  even  the  kindergarten  requires  considerable 
modification,  in  order  to  suit  it  to  American  conditions;  f 
and,  when  it  is  so  modified^  its  methods,  with  due 
adaptation,  must  be  carried  forward  into  all  grades  of 
education,  imparting  unity  of  plan  and  purpose  to  the 
whole.  A  clear  distinction  must  be  drawn  between 
culture,  on  the  one  hand,  and  erudition  and  professional 
training,  on  the  other.  The  first  ought  to  be  shared  by 
all;  the  last  two  are  necessarily  confined  to  individuals 
and  classes.  And  not  only  ought  one  scheme,  with  one 
definite  purpose,  to  extend  from  the  kindergarten  to 
the  university,  but  all  the  kindergartens,  universities 
and  other  institutions  of  learning  in  the  nation  should 
freely  unite  into  one  great  hierarchic  agency  for  the 
culture  of  citizens  fit  for  a  democracy.  The  seat  of  the  \ 
national  government  ought  to  be  the  central  seat  of  / 
learning;  the  Bureau  of  Education,  while  exercising  no 
authority,  should  be  the  most  influential  department  of 
the  national  government.  Indeed,  it  ought  to  be  erected 
into  a  separate  Department.  Even  from  a  national  point 

*This  is  especially  true  of  universities,  many  of  which  have  not  es- 
caped from  sectarianism  even. 

T  One  crying  need  is  a  collection  of  kindergarten  poems — real  poems 
like  "The  Mountain  and  the  Squirrel,"  "Castles  in  the  Air,"  ''Wee 
Willie  Winkie"  etc.,  and  not  pieces  of  doggerel,  like  most  of  the  Mut- 
ter-und  Kose-Lieder  ;  another  is  a  collection  of  children's  stories,  such 
as  Andersen  could  write  at  his  best,  ' '  How  to  make  Soup  of  a  Sausage- 
pin,"  etc.,  and  quite  unlike  those  that  figure  so  largely  in  our  children's 
periodicals  and  kindergarten  literature. 


262  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

of  view,  Education  is  surely  as  important  as  Agriculture, 
which  already  has  a  department  and  a  minister  to  itself.* 
The  culture  of  men  is  surely  as  important  as  the  culture 
of  plants  and  animals.  The  latter  are  means;  the  for- 
mer are  ends. 

(5)  How  far  should  education  extend?  This  ques- 
tion has  a  double  meaning.  It  may  mean:  To  what 
depth  should  it  go?  or  What  classes  of  the  population 
should  it  include?  And,  granting  that  it  should  include 
all  classes,  we  may  take  it  to  mean:  How  deep  should 
education  go  in  each  of  the  various  classes  of  the  popu- 
lation? It  is  in  the  last  sense  that  we  shall  here  con- 
sider it,  or  rather  one  aspect  of  it. 

As  long  as  men  have  different  endowments  and  tastes, 
there  will  be  different  grades  of  education  for  different 
classes.  Moreover,  as  long  as  the  distinction  between 
rich  and  poor  exists,  the  children  of  the  former  will  find 
it  easier  to  obtain  a  high  order  of  education  than  those 
of  the  latter.  The  former  will  stop  short  at  the  gram- 
mar or  high  school,  while  the  latter  will  go  on  to  the 
college  or  university.  Thus,  to  a  large  extent,  distinc- 
tion of  culture  will  coincide  with  difference  in  wealth, 
and  this  distinction  will  be  emphasized,  if,  as  is  but  too ' 
often  the  case,  the  rich,  untrue  to  the  principles  of 
democracy,  send  their  children  to  expensive,  and  there- 
fore exclusive,  private  schools,  while  the  poor  have  to 
be  content  with  the  public  ones.  Now,  while  the  last 

*  It  is  an  encouraging  sign  that  Washington's  dream  of  a  great  na- 
tional university,  for  the  behoof  of  which  he  even  left  a  legacy,  seems, 
after  the  lapse  of  a  century,  likely  to  be  realized.  See  an  admirable 
article,  by  the  President  of  the  University  of  Tennessee,  in  the  Forum 
for  February,  1900,  on  "Washington's  University."  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  this  institution  will  set  the  tone,  and  give  unity,  to  all  the  institu- 
tions of  learning  in  the  nation. 


THE   OUTLOOK  263 

fact  is  lamentable,  it  is  impossible  to  alter  the  general 
condition.  High  education  cannot  be  forced  upon  peo- 
ple who  do  not  desire  it,  and  the  poor  cannot  have  all 
the  advantages  of  the  rich.  But  in  this  matter  the  na- 
tion, as  represented  by  the  states,  has  a  duty,  which  calls 
upon  it  to  educate  all  its  citizens  to  such  a  degree  that 
none  of  them  shall  become  dependent  paupers  or  dis- 
contented incapables,  always  a  menace  to  society,  and 
that  all  shall  fully  understand  their  duties  and  privi- 
leges as  citizens,  and  be  prepared  to  claim  the  latter 
while  performing  the  former.  Now,  it  is  quite  obvious 
that  the  states  have  not  done  their  duty  in  this  respect. 
There  still  exists,  almost  everywhere,  a  large  amount 
of  incapacity,  poverty,  and  discontent,  with  all  the  forms 
of  degradation  and  danger  that  follow  from  these;  while 
large  numbers  of  the  population,  knowing  neither  their 
duties  nor  their  privileges,  as  citizens,  become  an  easy 
prey  to  selfish  politicians,  who  counsel  them  against 
their  own  best  interests,  and  whom  they  furnish  with 
power,  most  dangerous  to  society  and  to  the  nation.  If 
the  United  States  is  to  remain  a  democracy  otherwise  than 
in  name,  this  state  of  things  must  cease,  and  nothing 
can  make  it  cease  but  the  education  of  the  masses.  This 
education  must  take  two  forms,  (1)  training  with  a  view 
to  earning  a  livelihood,  and  avoiding  poverty,  with  all 
its  evils,  and  (2)  civic  culture  such  as  shall  enable  its 
recipients  to  do  their  duty  as  citizens,  and  not  be  mere 
"  dumb,  driven  cattle  "  in  the  shambles  of  self-appointed 
owners. 

The  truth  is,  there  is  a  great  gap,  ever  threatening  to 
become  a  devouring  abyss,  in  our  educational  system. 
Nay,  it  may  even  be  said  that  the  very  education  which 


264  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

is  most  needed  is  not  given.  We  educate  only  people 
of  leisure — children  in  our  schools,  young  men  and 
women,  knowing  little  more  of  life  than  children  do, 
in  our  colleges  and  universities.  The  great  body  of  the 
people,  who  have  to  "go  to  work"  early,  and  who,  as 
becoming  early  acquainted  with  "  life's  prime  needs  and 
agonies,"  are  by  far  the  most  susceptible  of  true  educa- 
tion,* are  left  out  in  the  cold,  condemned,  for  the  most 
part,  to  toil  in  a  narrow,  sordid  world,  without  outlook, 
and  to  be  the  tools  of  unscrupulous  exploiters.  For  the 
sake  of  these,  nay,  for  the  sake  of  the  entire  people,  we 
must  extend  the  blessings  of  education  to  them.  Our 
scheme  of  public  education  will  never  be  complete,  will 
never  even  do  its  best  work,  until  it  supplements  its 
present  institutions  by  a  whole  system  of  evening  train- 
ing-schools and  colleges  for  the  breadwinners,  the  for- 
mer to  impart  such  skill  as  shall  enable  them  to  give 
to  society,  by  a  reasonable  amount  of  labor,  an  equiva- 
lent for  a  decent  livelihood,  the  latter  to  open  up  for 
them  the  treasures  of  the  great  world  of  nature  and 
culture,  and  enable  them  worthily  to  perform  their  part 
as  members  of  family,  society,  and  state. 

At  first  sight,  it  will,  no  doubt,  seem  extravagant  to 
suggest  that  our  different  states  should  add  to  their  al- 
ready expensive  system  of  public  schools  another  system 
perhaps  equally  expensive;  but  a  little  reflection  will 
dispel  this  impression.  In  the  first  place,  education 
is  never  expensive:  it  is  worth  far  more  than  is  ever 
paid  for  it,  as  Horace  Mann  showed  long  ago.  Every 

*  No  one  who  has  ever  taught  a  class  of  intelligent  breadwinners  will 
return  willingly  to  academic  teaching.  It  would  be  well  if  all  college 
students  were  engaged  in  the  practical  duties  of  life. 


THE   OUTLOOK  265 

educated  citizen  is  a  treasure  to  a  nation,  far  more  valu- 
able than  a  heap  of  gold  or  diamonds.  Education  is 
strength;  ignorance  is  weakness.  The  United  States 
owes  its  high  place  among  the  nations  to-day  to  the 
education  of  its  people.  In  the  second  place,  education 
is  the  only  thing  that  can  do  away  with  those  internal 
evils  that  disturb  the  peace,  and  threaten  the  existence, 
of  the  nation — labor  troubles,  saloon  politics,  haunts  of 
vice,  slum-life  and  the  like.  These  things  exist  because 
a  large  body  of  our  people,  from  want  of  education  to 
open  up  to  them  the  world  of  great  movements,  and 
noble  interests  and  enjoyments,  are  condemned  to  nar- 
row, sordid  lives,  and  petty  or  vicious  interests.  We 
disinherit  them  of  the  spiritual  treasures  of  humanity; 
we  condemn  them  to  vulgarity,  meanness,  squalor,  and 
discontent,  and  then  we  wonder  why  they  are  vulgar, 
mean,  squalid,  discontented  and — rebellious.  We  make 
all  the  nobler  delights  of  cultured  life  impossible  for 
them,  and  then  we  wonder  why  they  take  to  vulgar  de- 
lights. We  leave  them  ignorant  of  the  true  principles 
of  social  and  economic  life,  and  then  we  wonder  that 
they  are  led  astray  by  social  and  economic  charlatans. 
We  do  not  teach  them  the  value  of  the  vote,  and  then 
we  are  disgusted  to  find  them  selling  it  for  a  glass  of 
whiskey.  We  do  not  cultivate  them  into  moral  inde- 
pendence, and  then  we  condemn  them  because  they  are 
the  slaves  of  party  politicians.  We  leave  them  without 
high  motives,  and  then  despise  them  because  they  are 
guided  by  low  ones.  In  our  impotent  folly,  we  try  to 
offset  the  gaudy  saloon,  with  its  cheap  exhilarations,  by 
the  tame  cafe,  the  silent  reading-room,  or  the  chaperoned 
recreation-room,  and  we  wonder  why  these  arouse  so 


266  THE  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

little  interest — just  as  if  we  could  outshine  the  glare  of 
a  conflagration  by  lighting  a  few  tallow  candles!  No 
interest  can  be  dimmed  except  by  the  introduction  of 
keener  ones.  If  we  would  quench  interest  in  the  saloon, 
the  pool-room,  the  dance-hall,  the  dive,  the  low  theatre, 
we  must  offset  them  by  something  arousing  a  warmer 
and  more  enduring  interest.  Their  true  rivals  are  the 
manual-training  school,  the  polytechnic  institute,  the 
lecture-room,  the  class-room,  the  college,  the  art-gallery, 
the  classic  theatre  and  concert-hall.  Until  we  have  of- 
fered the  people  the  attractions  of  high  things,  we  have 
no  right  to  complain  that  they  are  attracted  by  low 
things. 

But  it  is  not  merely  for  those  workers  who  are  at- 
tracted by  low  things  that  we  ought  to  provide  higher 
education.  There  is  a  very  large  majority  who,  despite 
their  toil,  poverty,  and  petty  worlds,  strive  honestly  to 
do  the  best  they  know,  to  live  clean  lives,  and  to  shun 
the  haunts  of  vice.  These  are  longing  for  higher  and 
richer  worlds  than  they  have,  and  it  is  the  State's  duty 
to  supply  them  with  the  material  for  these.  It  is  en- 
couraging to  see  that  already  some  efforts  are  making  in 
this  direction.  A  few  of  the  larger  cities  have  arranged 
courses  of  evening  lectures,  in  the  public-school  build- 
ings, and  their  efforts  have  been  seconded  by  private 
liberality.  All  this  is  excellent,  as  far  as  it  goes;  but 
it  does  not  go  far  enough.  The  lectures  are  often  super- 
ficial, disconnected,  and  desultory,  furnishing  transient 
amusement  rather  than  systematic  instruction.  Many 
of  them  deal  with  topics  that  are  sufficiently  dilated 
upon  in  the  newspapers  and  magazines,  and  call  for  no 
intellectual  effort.  Besides  this,  there  is  no  way  of  hold- 


THE   OUTLOOK  267 

ing  the  audiences  responsible  for  results — no  examina- 
tions, oral  or  written,  no  demand  for  work  of  any  sort 
on  their  part.  Now,  every  educator  to-day  knows,  or 
ought  to  know,  that  all  the  best  education  is  due  to  self- 
effort,  and  that  lectures  are  valuable  only  in  so  far  as 
they  evoke  this.  For  this  reason  classes  are  always 
better  than  lectures.  The  teacher  should  become  ac- 
quainted with  his  pupils  individually,  and  endeavor  to 
supply  the  needs  of  each  one.  In  dealing  with  the 
breadwinners,  there  is  no  agency  so  beneficial  as  per- 
sonal sympathy,  clear  of  all  condescension.  "  I  am  one 
of  you  "  is  the  "  Open  sesame  "  for  all  doors. 

The  truth  is,  there  ought  to  be  in  every  city  ward, 
and  in  every  country  village  a  People's  University,  con- 
sisting of  three  parts,  (1)  a  Manual  Training  School 
and  Polytechnic  Institute,  in  which  instruction  should 
be  given  in  all  the  arts;  (2)  a  College,  which,  eschewing 
authority,  sectarianism,  and  all  the  mediaeval  rags  and 
symbols,  to  which  most  of  our  colleges  at  present  cling, 
shall  impart  a  coherent  scientific  culture,  laying  special 
stress  upon  those  sciences  which  relate  to  the  history 
and  constitution  of  society;  *  (3)  a  Gymnasium,  with 
baths,  recreation-rooms,  and  rooms  for  lectures  on  hy- 
gienic and  kindred  subjects.  For  public  lectures  and 
plays,  there  should  be  a  well-appointed  theatre. 

All  these  things  are  already  realized  somewhere,  and 
have  only  to  become  general,  in  order  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  whole  people.  To  take  a  single  example:  Thirty- 
five  years  ago,  Mr.  Quintin  Hogg,  a  young  Scotchman, 

*  There  should  be  classes  in  Evolution,  History  of  Culture,  the  Circle 
of  the  Sciences,  Sociology,  Economics,  Comparative  Philology,  Art,  Re- 
ligion and  Politics,  Philosophy,  Psychology,  with  more  special  classes  in 
the  different  sciences,  literatures,  languages,  etc. 


2(38  THE   HISTORY    OF   EDUCATION 

fresh  from  Eton,  started  the  "  Pioneer  Institute  for 
Technical  Education/'  in  the  lowly  form  of  an  evening 
"  ragged  school "  for  boys.  For  the  last  twenty  years 
it  has  occupied  the  "  Polytechnic/'  a  stately  building 
in  Eegent  Street,  in  the  heart  of  fashionable  London. 
The  following  quotations  are  from  a  Times  article 
printed  in  a  report  for  1892.  "  What  differentiates  the 
Polytechnic  from  others  [institutes]  is  the  elaborate  sys- 
tem of  technical  instruction  which  is  open  to  its  mem- 
bers. These  members,  it  may  be  said,  are  admitted  on 
payment  of  a  subscription  of  3s.  [72  cents]  per  quarter, 
which  entitles  them  to  the  use  of  the  library,  social 
rooms,  gymnasium,  etc.,  and  admission  to  all  the  enter- 
tainments, while  for  the  technical  classes  mere  nominal 
rates  have  to  be  paid. 

"  The  classes  are  of  two  kinds,  science  and  art  classes, 
which  are  held  in  connection  with  the  Department  at 
South  Kensington;  and  industrial  classes,  which  are  in- 
dependent, but  which  are  more  or  less  formally  related 
to  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute  of  Technical 
Instruction  and  also  to  the  London  Trades'  Council. 
The  Industrial  classes,  again,  are  subdivided  into  classes 
of  mechanics  and  into  '  practical  trade  classes/  for  ap- 
prentices and  young  workmen,  and  it  is  these  last  which 
are  the  special  feature  of  the  Institute.  Among  them 
we  find  classes  for  various  branches  of  engineering,  for 
cabinet-making  and  carpentry,  including  such  subordi- 
nate departments  as  the  making  of  staircases  and  hand- 
railing;  we  find  classes  in  wood  and  stone-carving,  in 
tailors'  cutting,  in  sign-writing,  and  in  practical  watch 

*  The  present  writer  spent  an  evening  in  the  Polytechnic  in  1894,  and 
Baw  Mr.  Hogg  among  his  boys.  He  will  never  lose  the  impression  left 
by  that  evening. 


THE  OUTLOOK  269 

and  clock-making;  classes  in  carriage-building,  in  print- 
ing, in  land-surveying  and  levelling,  in  plumbing  and 
tool-making,  and  many  other  trades.  In  all  these  cases 
it  is  a  condition  that  no  one  is  to  be  admitted  who  is 
not  already  engaged,  say  as  an  apprentice,  in  the  trade; 
for  the  managers  of  the  Institute  see  how  important  it 
is  that  they  should  not  incur  the  hostility  of  the  London 
artisan  organizations  by  turning  out  imperfectly-trained 
and  amateurish  workmen  to  compete  with  them  in  the 
market. 

"  The  wonder  is  that  young  men  can  be  found  who 
care  to  spend  their  evenings  in  doing  much  the  same 
work  that  they  have  been  employed  upon  all  day;  but 
such,  unquestionably,  is  the  case,  and  the  class-rooms 
are  well-filled  with  lads  making  engines,  carving  wood, 
shaping  bricks,  or  learning  the  best  method  of  cutting 
out  cloth.  They  are  led  partly  by  the  genuine  desire 
of  learning,  and  partly  by  the  wish  to  better  themselves; 
for  example,  a  young  plasterer,  who  as  yet  knows  only 
the  plainer  elements  of  his  craft,  comes  to  the  Poly- 
technic to  learn  modelling  and  cornice-moulding,  and 
when  he  has  learnt  his  lesson,  he,  perhaps,  emigrates  to 
America  and  finds  himself  able  to  earn  something  like 
four  times  the  wages  which  he  has  been  earning  as  a 
simple  plasterer  in  London.  In  the  engineering-room, 
where  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  machinery  worked  by 
a  central  gas-engine,  a  dozen  young  men  may  be  seen 
profoundly  interesting  themselves  in  the  forming  of  a 
screw,  or  in  adapting  some  roughly  cast  bolt  to  the  re- 
quired purpose,  and' the  room  is  full  of  iron  lathes  and 
other  machines,  every  detail  of  which  has  been  made  and 
finished  on  the  spot  by  the  boys. 


270  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

"  The  variety  of  the  classes  is  very  great  indeed.  The 
results  are  eminently  satisfactory,  if  we  can  judge  from 
the  success  of  the  Polytechnic  pupils  in  the  different 
technical  examinations,  for  they  always  stand  at  the 
head."  (Pp.  22-24.) 

In  a  separate  building  is  the  Polytechnic  School  of 
Art.  "The  syllabus  comprises:  Free-hand  and  model 
drawing;  practical  geometry  and  perspective  drawing  in 
chalk  from  the  cast,  ornament  and  figure,  also  from  foli- 
age, flowers,  and  other  natural  objects;  painting  in  mono- 
chrome from  the  round,  figure,  and  ornament;  oil  and 
water  color  painting  from  copies,  drapery,  natural 
objects,  &c.  Special  attention  is  given  to  modelling  and 
casting  of  the  separate  parts  of  the  human  figure,  the  uses 
of  mouldings,  panels,  pilasters,  and  capitals  as  applied  to 
the  industrial  arts.  A  designing  and  sketching  club  has 
also  been  established  in  connection  with  the  school,  with 
monthly  exhibitions  of  students'  work,  in  designing, 
modelling  and  painting."  (P.  44.) 

There  are  "  Polytechnic  Holiday  Trips  "  to  Norway, 
Madeira,  Switzerland,  the  Ardennes,  Morocco,  and  even 
to  America.  The  fares  are  made  as  low  as  possible.  The 
"  Fare  for  the  Norway  round  journey,  including  all  ac- 
commodation, £8.5s."  [$40.08] .  "  Nearly  600  undertook 
the  trip."  "  This  hardly  sounds  like  a  description  of 
holiday  arrangements  for  working  men,  but  truth  is 
stranger  than  fiction."  (Pp.  47  sq.) 

Further  on,  the  Report  tells  us:  "  At  the  present  time 
(1892)  the  members'  roll  contains  about  3,500  names, 
and  there  are  besides  about  14,000  attending  classes  or 
in  some  way  connected  with  the  Institute.  The  limit 
of  age  for  members  is  sixteen  to  twenty-five,  but  those 


THE   OUTLOOK  271 

over  twenty-five  can  be  admitted  as  honorary  members 
on  payment  of  a  double  fee.  There  is  no  limit  of  age 
for  those  merely  joining  classes.  The  subscription  for 
young  men  between  the  ages  mentioned  is  3s.  a  quarter, 
or  10s.  6d.  [$2.52]  yearly.  .  .  . 

"  The  expenditure  during  the  last  financial  year  ex- 
ceeded £34,000  [$170,000],  of  which  £24,000  [$120,000] 
was  received  in  fees  from  members  and  students.  The 
deficit  on  the  working  was  for  many  years,  up  to  1889, 
made  up  by  Mr.  Hogg  personally,  but  since  then  he  has 
been  relieved  of  a  portion  of  the  burden  and  the  Insti- 
tute placed  on  a  more  permanent  basis. 

"  In  this  wise.  In  1853  Parliament  created  a  board 
to  superintend  the  administration  of  charitable  and  edu- 
cational endowments  all  over  Great  Britain,  and  in  1883 
a  further  Bill  was  passed  by  which  the  old  London 
charities  were  consolidated  and  placed  under  the  control 
of  the  aforesaid  board  of  Charity  Commissioners.  A 
large  income— upwards  of  £100,000  [$500,000]  per  an- 
num, mainly  derived  from  endowments  of  ancient  stand- 
ing, the  objects  of  which  had  lapsed — was  thus  made 
available  for  the  purposes  laid  down  in  the  Act.  About 
£60,000  [$300,000]  per  annum  were  allocated  to  the 
advancement  of  technical  and  social  education. 

"  How  all  this  bore  fruit,  and  how  the  Eegent  Street 
Polytechnic  came  to  be  accepted  as  a  model  for  nearly 
a  baker's  dozen  of  similar  institutions  now  springing 
up  all  over  the  Metropolis,  may  perhaps  be  more  fitly 
described  by  an  independent  writer.  .  .  .  He  says 
that,  '  as  a  matter  of  fact,  very  thorough  investigation 
was  made  by  the  Board  with  the  view  to  discover  the 
best  way  to  promote  a  technical  instruction  that  would 


272  THE  HISTOEY   OF   EDUCATION 

benefit  the  lower  rather  than  the  middle  classes.  Insti- 
tutions at  home  and  abroad  were  studied.  ...  As  a 
result,  the  commissioners  concluded  that  in  England 
only  the  richer  and  middle  classes  would  go  to  day  tech- 
nical schools,  and  that  night  schools  for  apprentices  and 
young  people  of  the  working  classes  should  be  sup- 
ported. .  .  .  They  were  convinced  that  for  the  young 
working  men  of  the  Metropolis  it  was  highly  desirable 
that  the  gymnasium,  the  swimming-bath,  athletic  games, 
and  careful  physical  training  should  be  provided.  .  .  . 
And  thus  they  had  reasoned  themselves  into  the  ac- 
ceptance of  Mr.  Hogg's  Polytechnic  as  the  most  com- 
plete and  desirable  form  of  technical  school  for  the 
poorer  classes  of  London.  They  determined  to  take 
his  school  as  a  model,  and  to  promote  the  establish- 
ment of  a  series  of  similar  institutes  throughout  the 
Metropolis.' 

"  In  accordance  with  these  provisions,  the  Charity 
Commissioners  have  secured  an  endowment  of  £3,500 
[$17,500]  per  annum  for  the  Polytechnic.  This  en- 
dowment, increased  by  another  £1,000  per  annum  from 
Mr.  Hogg  and  £1,000  from  another  source,  meets  about 
one-half  the  annual  deficit;  £4,000  [$20,000]  per  an- 
num has  still  to  be  raised  until  such  time  as  the  London 
County  Council  devote  to  technical  education  some  por- 
tion of  the  £163,000  [$815,000]  granted  them  by  Par- 
liament for  that  purpose.*  .  .  .  Mr.  Hogg  has  also 
made  over  the  buildings,  fittings,  etc.,  to  a  governing 
body  nominated  by  the  Charity  Commissioners,  by  the 
School  Board  for  London,  and  by  himself  and  his  co- 
trustees."  (Pp.  53  sq.) 

*  This  has  since  been  done. 


THE  OUTLOOK  273 

The  Eeport  closes  with  these  words: 

"  Such,  in  brief,  is  the  story  of  the  Polytechnic;  from 
a  pioneer  meeting  of  thirty-two  it  has  gone  on  increas- 
ing to  many  thousands.  Even  if  the  place  had  to  be 
closed  to-morrow  it  has  done  a  truly  national,  nay,  an 
international  work,  for  the  lusty  growth  of  the  Eegent 
Street  Polytechnic  is  sending  forth  its  branches  like  a 
mighty  oak,  not  only  into  all  parts  of  England,  but 
also  of  America  and  other  parts  of  the  world,  including 
the  Far  East. 

"  Such  Institutes  are  the  greatest  possible  antidotes 
to  intemperance  and  vice  of  every  kind;  they  provide 
healthy  physical  recreation  and  amusement  for  the 
leisure  hour;  they  help  to  make  a  young  man  a  better 
citizen,  and  a  more  capable  worker  in  the  battle  of  life; 
and,  above  all,  they  afford  facilities  and  encouragement 
to  follow  out  a  life  made  useful  in  benefiting  others, 
besides  opening  up  to  many  a  young  heart  the  highway 
to  lasting  happiness." 

There  is  no  need  to  apologize  for  this  long  quotation. 
It  shows,  on  the  one  hand,  how  much  can  be  done  by 
one  earnest  man,  and  on  the  other,  how  a  great  nation 
can  learn  from  the  work  of  such  a  man.  What  Great 
Britain  has  done,  and  is  doing,  the  United  States  can 
surely  do,  and  even  on  a  more  liberal  scale.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  British  Polytechnic  Institutes  include 
two  of  the  three  departments  which  should  be  found  in 
our  People's  Universities — a  Technical  School,  and  a 
Gymnasium.  The  third  department  is  perhaps  the  most 
necessary. 

If  space  permitted  it  would  be  desirable  to  give  ac- 
counts of  other  night-universities  in  Great  Britain  and 
18 


274  THE  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

elsewhere,  of  the  London  Working  Men's  College,  at 
which  Professor  Huxley  gives  some  of  his  best  lectures, 
of  the  Universites  Populaires,  which  are  springing  up  in 
every  arrondissement  of  Paris,  and  in  many  other  cities 
of  France,  and  so  on;  but  perhaps  enough  has  been  said 
to  show  that  the  technical  and  higher  education  of  the 
breadwinners  is  no  mere  impracticable  chimera,  but 
something  which  might  easily  be  brought  about  by  the 
efforts  of  a  few  earnest  men.  In  regard  to  the  Popular 
Universities  of  France,  there  is  one  thing  especially 
deserving  of  notice:  they  have  been  started  and  car- 
ried on,  as  missionary  work,  by  the  professors  and  teach- 
ers in  the  public  universities  and  schools  of  the  nation.* 
The  State,  however,  is  now  taking  notice  of  them,  and 
will  in  time,  no  doubt,  make  them  part  of  the  national 
system  of  education.  And  this  brings  us  to 

(6)  The  Teachers.  When  one  considers  what  im- 
provement has  been  made  in  the  teaching  personnel  of 
the  United  States  in  the  last  fifty,  and  especially  in  the 
last  twenty,  years,  one  feels  ungracious  in  making  any 
criticisms  or  suggesting  any  extensive  reforms.  And 
yet,  it  must  be  said,  such  reforms  are  necessary.  Our 
teachers  yet  require  two  things:  (1)  a  much  more  pro- 
found education  than  they  now  receive;  (2)  a  much 
deeper,  and  more  unselfish  interest  in  their  work  than 
most  of  them  now  have.  If  ever  we  are  to  have  the 
teachers  that  the  nation  needs,  Teaching  must  become  a 
liberal  profession,  alongside  Law  and  Medicine.  Those 
who  intend  to  pursue  it  must  take  a  full  college  (culture) 
course,  before  entering  the  School  of  Pedagogy,  and 

*They  were  roused  to  this  largely  by  the  infamy  accruing  to  the 
nation  from  the  "  Dreyfus  Case." 


THE  OUTLOOK  275 

such  a  school  they  must  all  enter  and  go  through.* 
Normal  Schools  were  a  necessity  in  their  day,  and  they 
have  done  much  good  work;  but  they  do  not  meet  our 
present  needs.  The  education  they  give  is  too  narrow, 
too  superficial,  and  too  strictly  professional  to  insure, 
or  even  to  make  possible,  true  culture,  which  teachers  re- 
quire above  all  things.  A  professionally  trained  teacher, 
without  a  background  of  culture,  is  a  mere  pedant,  who 
can  never  communicate  a  love  for  study,  or  awake  the 
highest  interests  in  the  souls  of  his  pupils.  But  it  is 
not  enough  for  teachers  to  have  culture;  they,  of  all 
people,  must  be  endowed  with  the  missionary  spirit. 
The  teacher  who  does  not  feel  himself,  or  herself,  an 
apostle  with  an  important  human  mission,  but  looks 
upon  the  teaching  profession  as  a  mere  means  of  mak- 
ing a  living,  had  better  seek  some  other  occupation; 
and  the  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  members  of  all 
the  liberal  professions.  The  physician  and  the  lawyer 
who  labor  merely  to  enrich  themselves,  and  not  that 
health  and  justice  may  prevail,  have  no  right  to  claim 
a  place  in  these.  If  the  teachers  of  the  nation,  with  a 
due  sense  of  their  power  and  importance,  would,  with- 
out hope  or  desire  for  material  reward,  form  themselves 
into  an  association  for  the  higher  education  of  the  bread- 
winners, as  the  teachers  of  France  are  doing,  and  each 
devote  a  couple  of  evenings  a  week  to  the  work,  they 
would  soon  elevate  the  culture  of  the  whole  people,  and 
remove  the  worst  dangers  that  threaten  society.  Pov- 

*  Up  to  recent  times  the  school-masters  in  Scotland  had  all  to  be  col- 
lege graduates  (M.A.).  Hence  the  high  status  of  popular  education  in 
that  country  and  the  practical  ability  of  its  people.  It  is  said  that  six- 
tenths  of  all  the  officials  in  the  British  Empire  are  Scotchmen.  It  was 
a  great  thing  for  Scotland  that  the  country  school-masters  could  prepare 
boys  for  college.  See  the  stories  of  Ian  Maclaren  and  Barrie. 


276  THE   HISTOKY    OF   EDUCATION 

erty,  vice,  and  degradation  would,  in  large  measure,  dis- 
appear, giving  place  to  well-being,  virtue,  and  nobility. 
There  is  no  more  patriotic  work  than  this;  for  it  is  not 
amid  the  thunders  of  the  battle-field,  where  men  slay 
their  fellow-men,  that  the  noblest  civic  laurels  are  won, 
but  in  the  quiet  school-room,  where  devoted  patriots,  men 
and  women,  combine  to  slay  misery,  meanness,  and  cor- 
ruption. When  will  our  teachers  be  ready  for  this? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

As  it  is  obviously  impossible  to  give  here  anything  like 
a  complete  Bibliography  of  Educational  Literature,  the 
following  list  contains  only  such  works  as  I  have  used 
in  compiling  the  present  book. 

Abelard,  P.:     Ouvrages  Inedits  (Cousin),  1836. 

Abelard,  P.:  Opera  hactenus  seorsim  Edita  (Cousin),  1849- 
59. 

^Jschylus:     Prometheus,  Oresteia. 

Aristophanes:    Clouds. 

Aristotle:    Ethics,  Politics,  Metaphysics. 

Babees  Book  (The)  (Furnival) :  Publications  of  the  Early 
English  Text  Society. 

Baldwin,  J.  M.:  Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  in 
the  Kace.  New  York,  1897. 

Bartholomai,  D.  Fr.:  Joh.  Friedr.  Herbart's  Paedagogische 
Schriften.  Langensalza,  1890. 

Bigg,  Charles:  The  Christian  Platonists  of  Alexandria. 
New  York,  1886. 

Boetius,  A.  M.  S.:  Philosophise  Consolationis  Libri  Quinque 
(Peiper),  1871. 

Boulger:     History  of  China,  3  vols.     London,  1881-84. 

Bowen,  H.  C.:  Froebel  and  Education  through  Self -Activ- 
ity. New  York,  Scribners,  1898. 

"  Brothers  of  Sincerity:  "  Encyclopaedia.     Calcutta,   1842. 

Bussell,  F.  W.:     The  School  of  Plato.    London,  1896. 

Compayre,  J.  G.:  Abelard  and  the  Origin  and  Early  His- 
tory of  Universities.  New  York,  Scribners,  1898. 

Compayre,  J.  G.:    A  History  of  Pedagogy.    Boston,  1895. 


278  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Dante   Alighieri:      Convivio,   De   Monarchia,   Divina   Corn- 
media. 
Darmesteter,  James:     The  Zend-Avesta,  in  Sacred  Books  of 

the  East  (Introduction  to  2d  Edition). 
Davidson,    Th.:     Aristotle    and    the    Ancient    Educational 

Ideals.    New  York,  Scribners,  1899. 
Davidson,    Th.:     Rousseau    and    Education    According    to 

Nature.    New  York,  Scribners,  1898. 
De  Garmo,  Ch.:     Herbart  and  the  Herbartians.    New  York, 

Scribners,  1896. 
Delitzsch,  Fr.:     Die  Entstehung  des  aeltesten  Schriftsys- 

tems.    Leipzig,  1896. 
Denifle,  P.  H. :     Die  Universitaten  des  Mittelalters,  bis  1400. 

Berlin,  1885. 
Denzinger,  H.:     Enchiridion  Symbolorum  et  Definition um. 

Wiirzburg,  1895. 

Deussen,  P.:     Das  System  des  Vedanta.    Leipzig,  1883. 
Deutsch,  Em.:     The  Talmud,  in  Literary  Remains.     New 

York,  1874. 
Deutsch,  S.  M.:     Peter  Abalard,  ein  kritischer  Theologe 

des  zwolften  Jahrhunderts.     Leipzig,  1883. 
Dieterici,  Fr.:     Die  Philosophic  der  Araber  in  X  Jahrhun- 

dert  n.  Chr.    Leipzig,  1876,  1879. 
Dieterici,   Fr.:      Der  Streit  zwischen   Thier  und   Mensch. 

Berlin,  1858. 
Dieterici,  Fr.:    Der  Darwinismus  in  zehnten  und  neunzehn- 

ten  Jahrhundert.    Leipzig,  1878. 
Dill,  Samuel:     Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the 

Western  Empire.    London,  1898. 

Drummond,  Henry:     The  Ascent  of  Man.    New  York,  1894. 
Drummond,  James:     Philo  Judaeus  and  the  Alexandrian 

Philosophy.    London,  1888. 
Elser,  K.:      Die  Lehre   des   Aristoteles   iiber  des  Wirken 

Gottes.    Minister,  1893. 
Frazer,  R.  W.:     A  Literary  History  of  India.     New  York, 

1898. 
Froebel,  T.  W.  A.:    Works.     (See  Bowen's  Froebel,  pp.  197- 

201.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  279 

Frothingham,  A.  L.:     Stephen  Bar  Sudaili  the  Syrian  Mys- 
tic.   Leiden,  1884. 
Geddes,  Pat.  and  Thomson:    The  Evolution  of  Sex.  London, 

1889. 

Geddes,  W.  D.:     The  Phsedo  of  Plato.    London,  1863. 
Gladstone,  W.  E.:    Juventus  Mundi.    London,  1869. 
Gobineau,  J.  A.  de:     Les  Religions  et  les  Philosophies  dans 

1'Asie  Centrale.    Paris,  1866. 
Goethe,  J.  W.:    Faust. 
Grote,  G.:    History  of  Greece. 

Hallam,  H.:    Literary  History  of  Europe.    Boston,  1854. 
Harnack,  A.:     Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschichte.    Freiburg, 

im  B.,  1888,  1890. 
Hatch,  E.:     The  Influence  of  Greek  Ideas  and  Usages  upon 

the  Christian  Church.     London,  1892. 
Haureau,  B.:     De  la  Philosophic  Scolastique.    Paris,  1850. 
Hegel,  G.  W.  F.:    Philosophie  der  Geschichte.    Berlin,  1832. 
Heracliti  Ephesii  Reliquae  (By water).    Oxford,  1877. 
Herbart.    See  Bartholomai. 
Herodotus:     History  (MoCo-cu). 
Hesiod:     Theogony,  Works  and  Days. 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.:     Horace  Mann  and  the  Common  School 

Revival  in  the  United  States.     New  York,   Scribners, 

1898. 
Hughes,  Th.:     Loyola  and  the  Educational  System  of  the 

Jesuits.    New  York,  Scribners,  1892. 
Huxley,  T.  H.:    Lay  Sermons,  Addresses  and  Reviews.    New 

York,  1871. 

Jastrow,  M. :    The  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria.    Bos- 
ton, Ginn,  1898. 
Jebb,  R.  C.:    Homer:     An  Introduction  to  the  Iliad  and  the 

Odyssey.    Boston,  Ginn,  1887. 

Josephus,  Flavius:     Works  (Whiston).    Edinburgh,  1867. 
Jourdain,  A.:     Recherches  Critiques  sur  1'Age  et  1'Origine 

des  Traductions  Latines  d'Aristotle.    Paris,  1843. 
Kuhn,  A.  F.  F.:     Die  Herabkunft  des  Feuers.    Berlin,  1859. 
Laurie,  S.  S.:     John  Amos  Comenius.    Cambridge,  1899. 
Laurie,  S.  S.:    Historical  Survey  of  Pre-Christian  Education. 

London,  1895. 


280  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Lecky,    W.    E.    H.:      History    of    European    Morals,    from 

Augustus  to  Charlemagne.    New  York,  1869. 
Lenormant,  F.:     The  Beginnings  of  History.     New  York, 

1883. 
Locke,  John:     Some  Thoughts  Concerning  Education.  New 

York,  1890. 

Loyola,  Ign.:     Exercitia  Spiritualia.    New  York. 
Lutoslawski,  W.:    The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Plato's  Logic. 

London,  1897. 
Mann,  Mary:     Life  and  Works  of  Horace  Mann.     Boston, 

1865. 

Martineau,  James:     The  Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion. 
Miiller,  D.  K:    Kirchengeschichte.    Freiburg  in  B.,  1892. 
Miiller,   F.   M.:      History  of  Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature. 

London,  1860. 
Miiller,  F.  M.:     Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language  (1st 

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Miiller,  F.  M.:    Theosophy  or  Psychological  Religion.    New 

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Necker   de    Saussure,    Mad.:      Education    Progressive,    ou 

Etude  du  Cours  de  la  Nature  Humaine.    Paris,  1836-38. 
NSldeke,  Th.:     Geschichte  des  Qorans.    Gottingen,  1860. 
Pestalozzi,  H.:     Ausgewahlte  Werke  (F.  Mann).     Langen- 

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Petrus,  Lombardus:     Sententise. 

Picavet,  F.:     Gerbert,  un  Pape  Philosophe.    Paris,  1897. 
Pica  vet,  F.:      Roscelin  Philosophe  et  Theologien.     Paris, 

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Picavet,  F.:     Abelard  et  Alexandre  de  Hales,  Createurs  de 

la  Methode  Scolastique. 
Plato:     Republic. 
Porphyry:  Elffayeay^. 
Preger,  W.:     Geschichte  der  deutschen  Mystik  in  Mittel- 

alter.    Leipzig,  1893. 

Preger,  W.:    The  Mind  of  the  Child.    New  York. 
Quick,  R.  H.:      Essays  on   Educational  Reformers.     New 

York,  1890. 
Quintilianus:     De  Institutione  Oratoria. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  281 

Rawlinson,  G.:     Origin  of  the  Nations.    London,  1887. 
Rawlinson,  G.:     The  Five  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  East- 
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Remusat,  Ch.:    Abelard.    Paris,  1845. 
Renan,  E. :    Averroes  et  1'Averroisme.    Paris,  1869. 
Reuter,    H.:      Geschiohte    der    religiosen    Aufklarung    im 

Mittelalter.    Berlin,  1875,  1877. 
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(Mrs.  Gray).    Boston,  1887. 
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Sayce,  A.:     The  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.    London,  1893. 
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INDEX 


Abelard,  P.,  160  sqq. 

Abraham,  31  n. 

Abu  '1  Feda,  130 

Achilles,  91 

Advance  in  education,  224  sqq. 

^Eschylus,  24 

Agni,  58,  61 

Ahura  Mazda,  67  sq. 

Akkad,  32 

Al  Azhar  (university),  164  n. 

Albertus  Magnus,  174 

Alexandrian  schools,  116 

Al  Farabi,  134 

Alfred,  King,  168 

Al  Ghazzali,  147 

"  Alice  in  Wonderland,"  239 

Al  Kindi,  134 

Andersen,  Hans  C.,  261  n. 

Angro-Mainyus,  69 

"  Animals  vs.  Man,"  139 

Anselm,  160 

Antioch  (city),  131 

Antioch  College,  247  n.,  253  n. 

Apollinaris  Sidonius,  127 

"  Apostles'  Creed,"  125 

Apperception,  233 

Aquaviva,  Cl.,  185 


Arab  character,  130 
Arab  philosophers,  134 
Arabic  translations,  134 
Ariel,  11 

Aristophanes,  95,  103  n. 
Aristotle,  8  n.,  9  n.,  14,  103  and 

n.,  132,  134,  168,  174,  177,  190, 

199  n.,  231  n. 

Aristotle's  Dialogues,  103  n. 
Arnold  of  Brescia,  162 
Arts  of  savages,  22 
"Arya,"  55 

Aryan  education,  55  sqq. 
Aryans,  56,  58  sqq. 
Ashur,  50 
Asoka,  65  n. 
Assyria,  27,  47  sqq. 
Asur,  47,  67,  and  n.,  68 
Athenagoras,  119 
Athletics,  98  n. 
Augustine,  126,  256  n. 
Avendehut,  J.   (Ibn  Dawud), 

165 
Avesta,  70 

"Babees  Book,"  225 
Babylonia,  47  sqq. 


284 


INDEX 


Babylonian  superstition,  51 
Bacon,  Francis,  184,  190 
Bacon,  Roger,  188 
Baldwin,  J.  M.,  18  n.,  192  n., 

218 
Barbarian   education,   24   sq., 

78 

Barrie,  J.  M.,  275  n. 
Barsumas,   131 
Bar  Sudaili,  134  n. 
Bartholomai,  D.  Fr.,  232 

Beautiful,  the,  16 

"_/' 
Bede,      the     Venerable,    ^ZB 

and  n. 

Behistun  inscription,  69  n. 
Benedict,  St.,  127  sq. 
Berkeley,  Bishop,  206 
Bernard,  St.,  160 
"  Beth-hammidrash,"  78,  83 
Bigg,  Ch.  ("  Christian  Platon- 

ists  "),  116  sqq.,  119  sqq.,  123 
Boetius,  128,  168 
Bologna  University,  169 
Bonifatius,  152  sq. 
Bonnet,  Ch.,  223 
Boston  Latin  school,  244  n. 
Boulger  ("Hist,  of  China"), 

44  n. 
Bowen,    H.    C.    ("  Froebel "), 

235 

Brahmanism,  58  sqq. 
Breadwinners'  education,  262 

sqq. 
"  Brothers  of  Sincerity,"  135 

sqq. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  177 
Buddhism,  44,  65  sqq. 
Bureau  of  Education,  261 


Bussell,    F.    W.    ("School    of 

Plato"),  101  n. 
Byron,  G.  G.,  67 


Cabanis,  195  n. 

Cain  and  Abel,  25 

Calasanzio,  Father,  186 

Caliban,  11 

Calvin,  J.,  180 

Cambyses,  73  n. 

Carvilius,  Sp.,  109 

Cassiodorus,  M.  A.,  128 

Castes,  27,  59 

"  Catechetical      School "      of 

Alexandria,  118  sqq. 
"  Categorical  Imperative,"  223 
Cato,  M.  P.,  109 
Chaldaea,  32,  37 
Charles  the  Great,  149  sqq. 
Chateaubriand,  223 
"Child  Study,"  253,  256 
China,  41  sqq. 
Chinese  education,  41  sqq. 
Chinese  ethics,  41 
Chlodowech,  151  and  n. 
"  Christian  Schools,"  186 
Church,  origin  of,  57 
Chwolsohn,  D.,  151  and  n. 
Cicero,  M.  T.,  110 
Civic  education,  75  sqq. 
Clement  of   Alexandria,    118, 

121,  123 

Columba,  St.,  151 
Comenius,  J.  A.,  191  sqq. 
Compayre,  G.,  191  and  passim 
Conder,  C.  R.,  32,  35 
Confucius,  41,  44 


INDEX 


285 


"  Congregation  of  the  Breth- 
ren of  St.  Charles,"  186 

Consciousness,  11 

Contemporary  Review,  18 

Convention,  99 

Copernican  astronomy,  177 

Counter-Eeformation,  173 

Cousin,  V.,  161 

Crusades,  165 

Cynics,  103  n. 

Cyprus,  50 

Cyrus  the  Great,  50  sq.  and  n., 
74 

Dabney,  C.  W.,  255,  262 
Dames'  schools,  246 
Dante,  8  n.,  175  n. 
Darius  I.,  69  and  n. 
"  Dark  Ages,"  129 
Darmesteter,  James,  69  n.,  70 

n. 
Davidson,  Th.  ("Aristotle"), 

61;       ("  Eousseau"),      209; 

("Kosmini"),213n. 
De  Garmo,  Ch.  ("Herbart"), 

232 

Delitzsch,  Fr.,  27  n.,  32,  55 
Demia,  Father,  186 
Denifle,  P.  H.,  166  n. 
Denzinger,      H.       ("  Enchiri- 
dion"), 123  n.,  156 
Descartes,  E.,  184,  195  sq.,  219 
Desire,  3 
Deussen,    P.     ("  System    des 

Vedanta"),  64  n.,  65  n. 
Aioyw^,  102 
"  Didactica   Magna "    (Come- 

nius),  193 


Dieterici,  Fr.,  135  sq. 

Dill,  Samuel,  105,  118,  124,  127 

Diodorus  Siculus,  48 

"  Dionysius  the  Areopagite," 

157 

Drummond,  H.,  2  sq.,  228 
Drummond,  J.,  116 


Edessa,  131 
Education,  1,  78 
Education,  division  of,  13 
Education,  history  of,  1 
Education  for  subordination 

and  for  freedom,  2 
Egypt,  27,  37  sqq. 
Egyptian  education,  37 
Egyptian  ethnology,  30  n. 
Eighteenth  century,  207  sqq. 
Elam,  68  and  n. 
Elser,  K.  ("  Wirken  des  arist. 

Gottes"),  103  n. 
Emerson,  E.,  16  n. 
"Emile"  (Eousseau),  210 

sqq. 

England,  education  in,  255  n. 
English  revolutions,  144,  207 
Epheboi,  98 
Epictetus,  112 
Epicureanism,  104  n. 
Epitaph   on   Eoman   matron, 

108 

Erasmus,  D.,  177 
Eriugena,  J.  S.,  157  and  n. 
Esoteric  and  exoteric,  103  n. 
Essences,  19  sqq. 
Exegesis   (Jewish),  79 
Ezekiel,  48 


286 


INDEX 


"  Fair-and-Goodness,"  94 

Families  of  peoples,  29 

Fate,  92,  99 

Feeling,  4 

Feeling,  desiderant,  10 

Feeling,  substantial,  4 

Fenelon,  Card.,  206 

Fetich,  19 

Fire,  22  n.,  26 

Fire-worship,  58,  69 

"  Fons  Vitae  "   (Ibn  Gabirol), 

81 

France,  teachers  of,  274  sq. 
Frazer,      J.      G.       ("Golden 

Bough"),  22  n. 
Frazer,  K.  W.  ("  Lit.-Hist.  of 

India"),  58,  59,  61 
Frederick  II.,  165,  167 
Froebel,  F.  W.  A.,  235  sqq. 
Frothingham,  A.  L.,  137 
Froude,  J.  A.,  173 

Galilei,  G.,  177 

Gathas,  70 

Geddes  and  Thomson,  9  n. 

Geddes,  W.  D.,  92  n. 

Gerbert  (Pope  Sylvester  II.), 

159 

Gerhard  of  Cremona,  165 
German  tribes,  149  sqq. 
Gioberti,  V.,  181  n. 
Gladstone,  W.  E.,  92  n.,  93 
Two-is,  123 

Gobineau,  Comte  de,  147 
Goethe,  J.  W.,  15  n.,  105,  124, 

148,  164,  171,  207,  257  n. 
Good,  The,  16 
Gosche,  K.,  45,  130 


Gray,  Maria,  240  n. 
Greek  education,  86  sqq. 
Gregory  the  Great,  127 
Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  121 
Grote,  G.,  101  n. 
Grotius,  H.,  202 
Gundissalinus,  Dom.,  165 
Gymnastics,  94 

Hades  (Sheol),  92  n. 

Haggada  and  Halaoha,  80  n. 

"  Hagiographa,"  80  n. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  260  n. 

Hallam,  H.,  190 

Hamlet,  257  n. 

Harnack,  A.,  118,  120,  123  n., 

128,  148,  153,  156,  158 
Harran,  131  and  n. 
Harvard  College,  244  n. 
Hatch,  E.,  123  n. 
Haureau,  B.,  103  n.,  161 
Haymo,  155 
Hebrews,  77  sqq. 
Hegel,  G.  W.  F.,  101  n.,  222 
Hellenes,  87 

Hellenistic  education,  114  sqq. 
Heraclitus,  102  n. 
Herbart,  F.  H.,  232  sqq. 
Herodotus,  70  sqq.,  73  n.,  74  n. 
Hesiod  ("  Theogony  "),  57  n.; 

("  Works  and  Days  "),  89 
Hieroglyphic  Writing,  32 
Hijrah,  133 

Hindu  character,  58  sqq. 
Hindu  philosophy,  60 
Hinsdale,     B.     A.     ("  Horace 

Mann  "),  245  sqq.,  250  n. 
Hittites,  30  n.,  32,  35 


INDEX 


287 


Hogg,  Quintan,  267  sqq. 

"  Home  of  the  Fathers,"  61 

Homeric  Greeks,  91  sq. 

Homeric  poems,  88  sq. 

Hommel,  Fr.,  37 

Horace,  109 

Hraban,  Maur,  154 

Hughes,  Th.  ("Loyola"),  181 

sqq. 

Human  education,  112  sqq. 
Hume,  David,  206,  219,  222 
Hunger  and  love,  1,  20 
Huxley,  T.  H.,  5,  6,  274 
Hyksos,  47 
Hypothesis,  15  n. 

Ibn,  Gabirol  (Avicebron),  81, 

147 

Ibn  Rushd   (Averroes)^  165 
Ibn  Sina  (Avicenna),  134 
Ibn   Tufail    (Abubacer),    147, 

210  n. 
Ideas,  101 
Ihne,  W.,  105 
Imitation,  18 
Immortality,  76 
India,  27 

Individualism,  100 
Instinct,  18 
"  Intellection,"  241 
Intelligence,  rise  of,  13  sqq. 
Iran,  66  sqq. 

Irish  monks,  129,  150  sqq. 
Isidore  of  Seville,  128 
Islam,  130  sqq.,  157  sq. 
Israelitish  exiles,  68 

Jackson,    A.    V.    W.    ("  Zoro- 
aster "),  68  n. 


"  Janua  Linguarum  Reser- 
ata  "  (Comenius),  193 

Jastrow,  M.,  50 

Jeremiah,  54 

Jerome,  126 

Jesuit  education,  181  sqq. 

Jewish  education,  77  sqq. 

Joel,  M.,  147 

John  of  Salisbury,  162 

Johnson,  Samuel,  17  n. 

Josephus,  Fl.,  69  n. 

Joshua  ben  Gamla,  83 

Josiah,  78 

Jourdain,  A.,  166  n. 

Judaism,  its  central  con- 
cepts, 86  _^. 

Juventus  Mundi  (Gladstone), 
92  n.,  93 

Kant,  Im.,  101,  217  sqq.,  222 

sqq.,  231 
Kd&aptris,  102 
Kethubim,  80  n. 
Kindergarten,  192,  235  sqq. 
Kindergarten  poems,  261  n. 
Kirjath-sepher,  53 
Knight,  Anne,  252 
Knox,  John,  178,  180 
Kuhn,  F.  F.  A.,  25  n. 

La  Salle,  Father,  186 
Latin,  109  sq.,  178 
Latin  fathers,  126 
"  Law  "  (The),  78,  80  n.,  116 
Lecky,  W.  E.  H.,  112 
Leibniz,  G.  W.,  189 
Lessing,  G.  E.,  173 
Letters,    introduction    of,    91 
and  n. 


288 


INDEX 


"  Liberal  Arts,"  117, 127,  153 

Liutpert,  155 

Locke,  John,  189,  195,  197  sqq., 

219,  226 

Loyola,  Ig.,  181  sqq. 
Luther,  M.,  176,  178  sq.,  254 
Lutoslawski,  V.,  102  n. 

"Ma'ad,"  142 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  105 

Mackenzie,  207 

MacLaren,  Ian  (John  Wat- 
son), 275 

Magi,  67  sqq.,  78  and  n. 

Maintenon,  Mde.  de,  206 

Manhood  examination,  98 

Mann,  Horace,  244,  247  sqq., 
254 

Marcus  Aurelius,  112 

Margoliouth,  31  n. 

Martianus  Capella,  127,  153 

Massachusetts  Bay  educa- 
tion, 244  sqq. 

Mathematics,  103 

Mazdeism,  68  sqq. 

Mede=Persian,  73  n. 

Medes,  67  sqq. 

Mediaeval  education,  148  sqq. 

Median  empire,  73 

Medo-Persia,  66  sqq. 

Melanchthon,  Ph.,  178  sq. 

Menander,  112 

Metempsychosis,  63 

Microscope,  52 

Mills,  L.  H.  ("Avesta"),  70 
n.,  73  n. 

Modern  education,  its  ten- 
dencies, 177,  188  sqq. 

Monolatry,  77 


Monotheism,  77 
Montaigne,  Mich,  de,  177,  210 
Moore,  Thomas,  228 
Muhammad,  132  sq.,  158 
Miiller,     D.     K.     ("  Kirchen- 

geschichte"),  131  sq.,  159 
Miiller,  F.  Max,  51  n.,  57  n.,  59 

n.,  68  n. 

Muslim  education,  130  sqq. 
Muslim  universities,  164  sq. 
Mysticism,   134,   150,   156  sq., 

158  sqq. 

Names,  20  sq. 

Naples  (university),  167 

Nature,  12  n.,  99  sq.,  175  sq., 

181,  209,  210  n. 
Necessity,  99  sq. 
Necker    de    Saussure,    Mde., 

243  and  n. 

Needs  of  education,  255  sqq. 
Nestorius,  132 
New  education,  its  aim,  229 
Newman,  J.  H.,  228 
Nicene  Creed,  125 
Nineveh,   50,   68 
Nisibis,  131  sq. 
Noldeke,  Th.,  133 
Nominalism,  160  sq. 
Normal  schools,  251 
Norsemen,  167 
Notker  Labeo,  159 

Oberlin  College,  253  n. 
Odo  of  Auxerre,  155 
Odyssey,  109 
Omar  Khayyam,  257  n. 
"  Orbis   Sensibilium   Pictus  " 
(Comenius),  193 


INDEX 


289 


Oriental  religions,  51 
Origen,  118,  121,  123 
Ormazd,  68 
Orosius,  168 
Outlook  (The),  254 
Oxford  University,  168 

"Palace  School,"  153 
Panizzi,  G.,  18 
Pantsenus,  118 
Pantheism,  236 
Paris  University,  169 
Parmenides,  195  n. 
Paschasius  Ratpert,  155 
Patrick,  St.,  150 
Patristic  education,  124  n. 
Pedagogy,  school  of,  274 
Pelasgians,  87 
Penitential  psalms,  54  n. 
People's  universities,  267 
Period  of  Charles  the  Great, 

149  sqq. 
Persia,  66  sqq. 
Persian  character,  70  sq. 
Persian  Wars,  99 
Personality,  76  and  n. 
Personality,  discovery  of,  101 
Pestalozzi,  H.,  229  sqq. 
Pestalozzi's  followers,  231  sq. 
Peter  the  Lombard,  16  n.,  162 

and  n. 

Peter  the  Venerable,  165 
Pharisees,  80 
Philo,  116 

Philosophy,  rise  of,  99,  103 
Phoenician  education,  55 
Phoenix,  91 
Picavet,  F.,  162  n. 


Picture-writing,  28 

Pietschmann  ("  Phosnicia  "), 
55 

n/(ms,  123 

Plato,  18  n.,  67,  101,  102  n.,  103 
n.,  104 

Plotinus,  123 

Polytechnic  (London),  268 
sqq. 

Porphyry,  135,  161,  164 

Post-Aristotelian  philosoph- 
ers, 104,  115  sqq. 

"  Practical  "  education,  259 

Praeconius  Stilo,  L.  A.  E.,  109 

Precept,  19 

Preger,  W.,  150,  156 

Preyer,  W.  ("  Die  Seele  des 
Kindes"),  192 

Priests  and  laity,  27 

Priests,  originators  of  sci- 
ence, 28 

Prometheia,  73  n. 

Prometheus,  25  and  n. 

Protagoras,  100,  219 

Ptah-hotep  ("  Aphorisms  "), 
39 

Purgation,  94 

Purification,  102 

Puritan  education,  244  sqq. 

Pythagoras,  103  n. 

Qoran,  130,  133,  145,  164  sq. 
Quintilian,  110 

Rabelais,  177 

"  Ratio     Studiorum "     (Jesu- 
its), 185 
Rawlinson,  G.,  37,  48,  50 


290 


INDEX 


Reading,  29 

Realism,  160  sq. 

Reason,  114,  175  sq.,  209 

Redemption,  Vedantic,  63  sqq. 

Reformation  (The),  173  sqq. 

Religion,  19 

Remusat,  Ch.,  161,  170  n. 

Renaissance,  The,  173  sqq. 

Renan,  E.,  165  n. 

Renter,  H.  ("  Aufklarung  im 

Mittelalter"),  175 
"Robinson  Crusoe,"  210 
Rogers,  J.  E.  Thorold,  207 
Rollin,  206 

Roman  Christianity,  125 
Roman  education,  105  sqq. 
Romans  vs.  Spartans,  106 
Roscellinus,  160 
Rosmini-Serbati,  A.,  1,  9  n., 

239  sqq.,  254 
Rousseau,  J.  J.,  209  sqq.,  219, 

222,  226,  254 

Sabbath,  32 

Sacrifice,  21  n.,  27 

Sacrificers,  27 

Sadducees,  80 

Salerno  University,  168 

Sargon,  68  n. 

Savage  education,  18  sqq. 

Savages,  11 

Sayce,  A.,  38,  47  n.,  49,  50,  53, 

69  n. 

Scepticism,  modern,  206 
Schelling,  222 
Schiller,  Fr.,  192,  256  n. 
Schmidt,     K.     ("  Gesch.     der 

Paedagogik  "),  45 


Scholastic  method,  162 
Scholasticism  and  Mysticism, 

156  sqq. 
Schrader,  E.,  19  n.,  53  n.,  68  n., 

69  n. 

Schrader,  O.,  57  n. 
Schriftgelehrte  (Scribes),  28 
Schurer,  E.,  115  sq. 
Science,  beginnings  of,  28 
Science  vs.  Theology,  175 
Scott,  Sir  Walter,  239 
Scottish  schools,  180 
Scotus  Eriugena,  J.,  1 
"  Scuole  Pie,"  186 
Seailles,  G.,  174,  189  sqq. 
Semites  vs.  Aryans,  89  n. 
Semitic  character,  45  sqq. 
Semitic  education,  45  sqq. 
Semitic  gods,  88,  90  n. 
Semitic  languages,  45 
Seneca,  L.  An.,  112 
Servatus  Lupus,  155 
Seth,  Andrew,  1 
Sevigne,  Mde.  de,  200 
Shakespeare,  W.,  9  n.,  11  n.,  15 

n.,  194  n. 
Shalmanezer,  67 
Shem  (meaning),  19 
Shirreff,  E.  A.  E.,  235 
Siebeck,  H.,  101  n. 
Sin,  54 
Sippara,  53 
Slavery  of  savages,  22 
Smith,  George  ("  Babylonian 

Genesis  "),  57 
Smith,  S.  F.,  18 
Smith,  W.  Robertson,  21  n.,  46 

n.,  48,  55,  116 


INDEX 


291 


"  Social  Contract,"  210 
Society  of  Jesus,  182  sqq. 
Socrates,  101  and  n.,  217  sqq. 
Solonian  oath,  98 
Soothsayers,  27 
Sopherim,  53  and  n.,  78 
Sophists,  101  and  n. 
Spencer,  H.,  i,  8  n.,  253  n. 
Spenser,  Edm.,  14 
Spiegel,  Fr.,  67,  69  n.,  73  n., 

74  n. 

Stages  of  education,  13  sqq. 
State,  origin  of,  27  sqq. 
Steinschneider,    M.,    134    nn., 

165  n. 

Stoics,  103  n.,  104  n. 
"  Studium  generale,"  166  sqq. 
Subject  vs.  object,  101 
Sudras,  59 
Sumir,  32 
Supernatural    beginnings    of 

humanism,  114  sqq. 
Symbol-making  faculty,  16 
2t^ij8oA.oi/,  15  n. 
Symbols,  19 
Syrian    church    and    schools, 

131 

Talamo,  Sal.  ("  Aristotelismo 
nella  Scolastica  "),  169  n. 

Talmud,  The,  79 

Taoism,  44 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  12  n.,  61  n., 
93  n.,  218,  257  n. 

Tertullian  on  education,  126 

Theodore  of  Tarsus,  151 

"  Theology  "  of  Aristotle,  135, 
142 


Theology  vs.  Science,  175 

Sftapia,  102 

Thomas  Aquinas,  163,  174 

Tocco,  Felice,  150 

Tool-using  faculty,  16 

"Torah,"  78 

Town,  26  n. 

Tragedy  and  comedy,  origin 
of,  89 'n. 

Translations  from  Arabic,  165 

Trendelenburg,  Ad.,  101  n. 

True,  the,  16 

Turanian  education,  30  sqq. 

Turanian  gods,  88 

Turgot,  254 

Tylor,  E.  B.  ("  Primitive  Cult- 
ure "),  12  n.,  17  n.,  19  n.,  21, 
46  n. 

Tyrrhenians,  87 

Ulfilas,  152  n. 
Universals,  103  n. 
Universe,  the,  is  social,  8  sq. 
Universitas,  166 
Universites  populaires,  274 
Universities,     mediaeval,     164 
sqq. 

Van  den  Gheyn,  57  n. 
Varro,  110 
Veda,  1,  59  sqq. 
Vedanta,  60,  63 
Vernacular,  the,  180 
Vinci,  Lionardo  da,  187  sqq. 
Voltaire,  222 

Von  Eicken,  H.,  124,  148,  150 
sq. 


292 


INDEX 


Walafried  Srabo,  155 

"  Waqf  "  schools,  227 

Washington's  university,  262 

Werembert,  155 

West,    Andrew     ("Alcuin"), 

153 

Westcott,  B.  F.,  19  n.,  118 
White,  A.  D.,  175,  226 
Windischmann,  Fr.,  69  n. 
Wolf,  Chr.,  219 
Women,  40 

Working  men's  college,  274 
Worth,  94;   (paean  to),  15 


Writing,  28  sq.,  32  sqq. 
Wynfrith  (Bonifatius),  152 

Xenophon  ("  Cyropaedia  "),  70 
Yahweh,  31  n.,  47 

Zarathushtra  (Zoroaster),  68 

sqq. 
Zeller,  Ed.  ("  Philosophic  der 

Griechen"),  103  n. 
Zeus,  90  n. 
Zodiac,  52 
Zwingli,  U.,  180 


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